ALL THE BEST
Wednesday, November 18, 2009
Tuesday, November 17, 2009
Wednesday, October 28, 2009
Tuesday, October 27, 2009
SENDING IMP FILES TO INDIVIDUAL MAIL IDS
Hi
I am sending all the files (chapter wise) to your individual mail ids.
use them efficiently and also read the books(OVK REDDY OR KOUSHIK & KOUSHIK & BHARUCHA
SEND YOUR MAIL ID'S, IF SOMEONE NOT RECEIVING(all my students in other colleges also)MY MAIL_ID: mail2mvreddy@gmail.com (OR) post2m@gmail.com
I am sending all the files (chapter wise) to your individual mail ids.
use them efficiently and also read the books(OVK REDDY OR KOUSHIK & KOUSHIK & BHARUCHA
SEND YOUR MAIL ID'S, IF SOMEONE NOT RECEIVING(all my students in other colleges also)MY MAIL_ID: mail2mvreddy@gmail.com (OR) post2m@gmail.com
ES 2nd MID IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
2nd mid Environmental Studies:
1) Classify the Air pollutants and add a note on emission sources of the air pollutants.
2) How is the surface waters polluted? Explain in terms of oxygen demand?
3) Give a brief account of PAN and photo chemical smog
4) Briefly describe the thermal pollution causes, effects and control measures?
5) Give a case study on women and child welfare?
6) What is the role of IT in environmental Health?
7) Write about documenting the environmental assets of river ecosystems?
8) How do you asses the pollution at an industrial site?
9) Explain Soil Pollution and its effects on the soil quality?
10) a) What are the physico-chemical characteristics and effects of primary air pollutants?
b) What are secondary pollutanta? Give the photo-chemical reactions of Ozone?
11) Name some Nuclear Hazards taken place and enumerate the effects?
12) Define solid waste and what are the various types of wastes which contribute to solid waste.
13) a) What is meant by rainwater harvesting and how is it helpful for the groundwater conservation?
b) Define Watershed management and enumerate the management techniques.
14) How can the present day’s unsustainable conditions of the Environment are pulled towards Sustainability to achieve eco-friendly developed society.
15) a) Define global warming and explain the concern today for its abatement.
b) How is acid rain formed given the chemical reactions and its effects on Humans and Environment?
c) Write briefly about Ozone layer depletion.
16) What is meant by Environmental ethics, Discuss major Environmental issues of concern today?
17) a) Write short notes on Consumerism and Waste products.
b) List out the effects of population.
18) What are the issues involved in the enforcement of the Environmental legislation.
19) Nuclear deal between India & USA has been in headlines for a long period. Give your opinion on this controversial issue.
20) Define HIV and What are the causes of AIDS and how to prevent it.
21) Dumping the waste effluents into the water bodies causes sevier health hatreds. Discuss with the help of a case study.
22) Write an essay on Urbanization and impact on Environment.
23) What is the role of education in presenting our nature from distress?
24) Enumerate the essentiality of wasteland reclamation and How are they formed.
25) What are the major problems and concerns regarding the Resettlement & rehabilitation of people affected by Environmental Problems ?
24) How is the water pollution controlled and prevented by the Water-Act.
25) What is EPA-Air act, Brief the details of the act.
26) What is the Proforma for field work on documenting environmental assets of any ecosystem?
27) a) Write about documenting the environmental assets of Forest ecosystems?
b) Write about documenting the environmental assets of Hill/Mountain ecosystems?
28) Write about documenting the environmental assets of Grassland ecosystems?
29) What is the Proforma for fieldwork for assessing any polluted site?
30) Define solid waste and Write about the study of a dum
1) Classify the Air pollutants and add a note on emission sources of the air pollutants.
2) How is the surface waters polluted? Explain in terms of oxygen demand?
3) Give a brief account of PAN and photo chemical smog
4) Briefly describe the thermal pollution causes, effects and control measures?
5) Give a case study on women and child welfare?
6) What is the role of IT in environmental Health?
7) Write about documenting the environmental assets of river ecosystems?
8) How do you asses the pollution at an industrial site?
9) Explain Soil Pollution and its effects on the soil quality?
10) a) What are the physico-chemical characteristics and effects of primary air pollutants?
b) What are secondary pollutanta? Give the photo-chemical reactions of Ozone?
11) Name some Nuclear Hazards taken place and enumerate the effects?
12) Define solid waste and what are the various types of wastes which contribute to solid waste.
13) a) What is meant by rainwater harvesting and how is it helpful for the groundwater conservation?
b) Define Watershed management and enumerate the management techniques.
14) How can the present day’s unsustainable conditions of the Environment are pulled towards Sustainability to achieve eco-friendly developed society.
15) a) Define global warming and explain the concern today for its abatement.
b) How is acid rain formed given the chemical reactions and its effects on Humans and Environment?
c) Write briefly about Ozone layer depletion.
16) What is meant by Environmental ethics, Discuss major Environmental issues of concern today?
17) a) Write short notes on Consumerism and Waste products.
b) List out the effects of population.
18) What are the issues involved in the enforcement of the Environmental legislation.
19) Nuclear deal between India & USA has been in headlines for a long period. Give your opinion on this controversial issue.
20) Define HIV and What are the causes of AIDS and how to prevent it.
21) Dumping the waste effluents into the water bodies causes sevier health hatreds. Discuss with the help of a case study.
22) Write an essay on Urbanization and impact on Environment.
23) What is the role of education in presenting our nature from distress?
24) Enumerate the essentiality of wasteland reclamation and How are they formed.
25) What are the major problems and concerns regarding the Resettlement & rehabilitation of people affected by Environmental Problems ?
24) How is the water pollution controlled and prevented by the Water-Act.
25) What is EPA-Air act, Brief the details of the act.
26) What is the Proforma for field work on documenting environmental assets of any ecosystem?
27) a) Write about documenting the environmental assets of Forest ecosystems?
b) Write about documenting the environmental assets of Hill/Mountain ecosystems?
28) Write about documenting the environmental assets of Grassland ecosystems?
29) What is the Proforma for fieldwork for assessing any polluted site?
30) Define solid waste and Write about the study of a dum
Thursday, September 3, 2009
we have holidays upto sunday
good news.....
we have holidays up to sunday.
because of YSR'S death ( Bad News?)
SO,
Submit the assignment on MONDAY(7/9/09).
we have holidays up to sunday.
because of YSR'S death ( Bad News?)
SO,
Submit the assignment on MONDAY(7/9/09).
FIRST MID ASSIGNMENT 2: SUBMIT ON SATUR DAY(5/9/09)
4 a). Zonation of oceans:
FIGURE IS IN NEXT POST. OCEAN ZONES
Oceans cover more than 2/3rd of the earth’s surface. The ocean environment is characterized by its high concentration of salts and minerals. It supplies huge variety of sea-products and drugs. It also provides us iron, magnesium, phosphorous, natural gas.
Zones of oceans:
Intertidal zone: The ocean connect to the land via what is called the inter-tidal zone. Because of rising and falling tides, coastal areas are constantly changing, with various animals and marine plants living at the bottom, and on the seashore. Rocky coastal areas are host to fewer species due to the fact that only the highest of tides will reach the top of the cliffs.
Neritic zone: This is the relatively shallow ocean that extends to the edge of the continental shelf. Primary productivity here depends on planktonic algae growing as deep as the light can reach.
Epipelagic Zone: The surface layer of the ocean is known as the epipelagic zone and extends from the surface to 200 meters. It is also known as the sunlight zone because this is where most of the visible light exists.It is host to many species of fish and marine mammals, plankton ,and some floating seaweed. With the light come heat, responsible for the wide range of temperatures that occur in this zone.
Mesopelagic Zone: Below the epipelagic zone is the mesopelagic zone, extending from 200 meters to 1000 meters. The mesopelagic zone is sometimes referred to as the twilight zone or the midwater zone. The light that penetrates to this depth is extremely faint. It is in this zone that we begin to see the twinkling lights of bioluminescent creatures. A great diversity of strange and bizarre fishes can be found here.
Bathypelagic Zone: The next layer is called the bathypelagic zone. It is sometimes referred to as the midnight zone or the dark zone. This zone extends from 1000 meters down to 4000 meters. Here the only visible light is that produced by the creatures themselves. The water pressure at this depth is immense and temperature is low, In spite of the pressure, a surprisingly large number of creatures can be found here. Sperm whales can dive down to this level in search of food. Most of the animals that live at these depths are black or red in color due to the lack of light.
Abyssopelagic Zone: The next layer is called the abyssopelagic zone, also known as the abyssal zone or simply as the abyss. It extends from 4000 meters to 6000 meters. The name comes from a Greek word meaning "no bottom". The water temperature is near freezing, and there is no light at all. Very few creatures can be found at these crushing depths. Most of these are invertebrates such as basket stars and tiny squids. Three-quarters of the ocean floor lies within this zone. The deepest fish ever discovered was found in the Puerto Rico Trench at a depth of 8,372 meters.
Hadalpelagic Zone: Beyond the abyssopelagic zone lies the forbidding hadalpelagic zone. This layer extends from 6000 meters to the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean. These areas are mostly found in deep water trenches and canyons. The deepest point in the ocean is located in the Mariana Trench off the coast of Japan at 10,911m. The temperature of the water is just above freezing, and the pressure is an incredible eight tons per square inch. That is approximately the weight of 48 Boeing 747 jets. In spite of the pressure and temperature, life can still be found here. Invertebrates such as starfish and tube worms can thrive at these depths.
Role played by the oceans in terms of providing resources and regulating climate: Oceans represent the largest and most diverse of the ecosystems; The sea has always played an important role in the life of those people who live around its shores. Salt water evaporates and turns to rain which falls on the land regions, while most of the oxygen in our atmosphere is generated by algae. Algae is also responsible for the absorption of large amounts of carbon dioxide from our atmosphere.
The oceans, which cover more than 70% of the earth’s surface, play a fundamental and complex role in regulating climate. The oceans absorb huge amounts of solar energy; ocean currents transport this heat from the equator toward the Poles. In the past, long-term, natural oscillations in the oceans’ capacity to store and transport heat have led to global temperature changes.
As part of a vast planetary cycle of evaporation and rainfall, the oceans are also fundamental to the movement of water around the globe. Measuring changes in precipitation patterns, and understanding how they may lead to droughts in some regions and flooding in others, is a major part of predicting the potential effects of global climate change on human activities and natural ecosystems.
4 b). Define Ecosystem and explain pond ecosystem:
Ecosystem: An ecological community together with its environment, functioning as a unit or Community of living organisms (populations of species) interacting with one another and with the non-living environment.
Simple Pond Ecosystem:
FIGURE IS NEXT POST: SIMPLE POND ECOSYSTEM
Pond ecosystems range in size from just a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers. Scattered throughout the earth. Many ponds are seasonal, lasting just a couple of months (such as sessile pools) while lakes may exist for hundreds of years or more. Ponds and lakes may have limited species diversity since they are often isolated from one another and from other water sources like rivers and oceans. Lakes and ponds are divided into three different “zones” which are usually determined by depth and distance from the shoreline.
Littoral Zone: The topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond is the littoral zone. This zone is the warmest since it is shallow and can absorb more of the Sun’s heat. It sustains a fairly diverse community, which can include several species of algae (like diatoms), rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fishes, and amphibians. In the case of the insects, such as dragonflies and midges, only the egg and larvae stages are found in this zone. The vegetation and animals living in the littoral zone are food for other creatures such as turtles, snakes, and ducks.
Limnetic Zone: The near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone is the limnetic zone. The limnetic zone is well-lighted (like the littoral zone) and is dominated by plankton, both phytoplankton and zooplankton. Plankton are small organisms that play a crucial role in the food chain. Without aquatic plankton, there would be few living organisms in the world, and certainly no humans. A variety of freshwater fish also occupy this zone.
Profundal Zone: Plankton have short life spans—when they die, they fall into the deep-water part of the lake/pond, the profundal zone. This zone is much colder and denser than the other two. Little light penetrates all the way through the limnetic zone into the profundal zone. The fauna are heterotrophs, meaning that they eat dead organisms and use oxygen for cellular respiration.
Temperature varies in ponds and lakes seasonally. During the summer, the temperature can range from 4° C near the bottom to 22° C at the top. During the winter, the temperature at the bottom can be 4° C while the top is 0° C (ice). In between the two layers, there is a narrow zone called the thermocline where the temperature of the water changes rapidly. During the spring and fall seasons, there is a mixing of the top and bottom layers, usually due to winds, which results in a uniform water temperature of around 4° C. This mixing also circulates oxygen throughout the lake. Of course there are many lakes and ponds that do not freeze during the winter, thus the top layer would be a little warmer.
5 a). Elements of an ecosystem and their interdependency:
Ecosystem: Community of living organisms (populations of species or biota ) interacting with one another and with the non-living (abiotic) environment.
All living things that inhabit an environment are Biotic Factors. All nonliving things that inhabit an environment are Abiotic Factors.
Abiotic Components:
Water, air, temperature, soil, nutrients, minerals, light levels, moisture, precipitation, salinity.
Biotic Components:
Producers, consumers, decomposers
Plants, animals, bacteria/fungi
Biotic interactions with abiotic components include predation, competition, symbiosis, parasitism, commensalism etc.
FIFURE IS IN NEXT POST:Figure: Relationships within an ecosystem
Figure: Relationships within an ecosystem
Organisms that make up the biotic component of an ecosystem are usually classified as autotrophs and heterotrophs, based on how they get their food or organic nutrients they need to survive.
Autotrophs(producers): are organisms that can manufacture the organic compounds they need as nutrients from simple inorganic compounds obtained from their environment. In most terrestrial ecosystems, green plants are the producers. In aquatic ecosystems, most of the producers are phytoplankton, consisting of various species of of floating and drifting bacteria and protist.
Most producers make their organic nutrients they need through photosynthesis. The overall net chemical change can be summarized as follows:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + solar energy -----> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Some producers , mostly specialized bacteria, can extract inorganic compounds from their environment and convert them into organic nutrient compounds without the presence of sunlight. These producers are called chemosynthesis. An example of this is around the hydrothermal vents in some parts of the deep ocean. Bacteria carry out chemosynthesis by converting inorganic hydrogen sulfide to organic nutrients.
Heterotrophs(consumers)-are organisms which cannot synthesize the organic nutrients they need and get their organic nutrients by feeding on the tissues of producers or other consumers. There are several classes of of consumers, depending on there food source.
1.Primary consumers (herbivores) feed directly on plants or other producers.
2.Secondary consumers (carnivores) feed only on primary consumers.
3.Tertiary or higher level consumers feed only on animal-eating animals.
4.Omnivores can eat both plants and animals.Examples are pigs, rats, cockroaches, and humans.
5.Detrtivores (decomposers and detritus feeders) live off of detritus, parts of dead organisms and castoff fragments and waste of living organisms. Decomposers digest detritus by breaking down the complex organic molecules in these materials into simpler, inorganic compounds. Decomposers consist of various bacteria and fungi.
5 b). Bidiversity Types: Genetic Diversity and Species Diversity..
Biodiversity is a modern term which simply means " the variety of life on earth". This variety can be measured on several different levels.
Genetic - variation between individuals of the same species. This includes genetic variation between individuals in a single population , as well as variations between different populations of the same species. Genetic differences can now be measured using increasingly sophisticated techniques. These differences are the raw material of evolution.
Species - species diversity is the variety of species in a given region or area. This can either be determined by counting the number of different species present, or by determining taxonomic diversity. Taxonomic diversity is more precise and considers the relationship of species to each other. It can be measured by counting the number of different taxa (the main categories of classification) present. For example, a pond containing three species of snails and two fish, is more diverse than a pond containing five species of snails, even though they both contain the same number of species. High species biodiversity is not always necessarily a good thing. For example, a habitat may have high species biodiversity because many common and widespread species are invading it at the expense of species restricted to that habitat.
6 a). BIO-DIVERSITY hot-spots:
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened with destruction.
In 1988, British ecologist Norman Myers developed the concept of biodiversity hotspots to address the dilemma of identifying areas most important for preserving Species. Many areas of global significance face tremendous pressure from logging, agriculture, hunting, and Climate change. The hotspots strategy emphasizes risks of species extinction since species loss is irreversible. Since these species can only be found in specific areas, the loss of such areas would be considered “irreplaceable.” The strategy also emphasizes species endemism.
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot the regions must support at least 1,500 plant species found nowhere else in the world and Such areas must have lost at least 70 percent of its original Habitat.
It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of global plant life, probably occur in only 18 ‘hot spots’ in the world. Countries which have a relatively large proportion of these hot spots of diversity arereferred to as ‘megadiversity nations’.
Biodiversity Hotspots in India :
Western Ghats (Sahyadri Hills):
The Western Ghats , also known as the Sahyadri Hills , is a mountain chain running from the north to the South and is isolated by the Arabian Sea to the West, the arid Deccan Plateau to the East, and the Vindhya-Satpura ranges to the North. They have different vegetation types: scrub jungles and grasslands at low altitudes, dry and moist deciduous forests, montane grasslands and shoals, and the precious tropical evergreen and semi evergreen forests. Complex topography, high rainfall and relative inaccessibility have helped the region retain its biodiversity. Of the estimated 17000 species of flowering plants reported from india, about 4780 species are found in the western ghats region, of which 1720 (more than 1/3rd ) are endemic. Of the 372 species of mammals found in india, 63 are in the western Ghats, of which 16 are endemic. in addition 91 species of reptiles and 84(50%) species of amphibians(62%) are also endemic to these region. Some of endemic species in these region are:
Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri Hangul, Malabar Civet, Nilgiri marten, Indian gaint sqirrell, small travancore flying squirrel and Nilgiri Tahr.
Indo-Burma ( Eastern Himalayas ) :
Geographhically these area comprises Nepal, Bhutan and neighboring states of Northern India. There are 35000 plant species found in the Himalayas, of which 30% are endemic. Out of the 372 species of mammals found in india, 300 are in the western Ghats, of which 12 are endemic. In addition 48 out of 176 species of reptiles, 42 out of 85 species of amphibians and 15 out of 977 birds are also endemic to these region. The eastern Himalayas are also rich in wild plants of economic value and huge wealth of fungi, insects, mammals and birds.
6 b). In Situ Conservation :- within the natural habitat:
In situ conservation maintains not only the genetic diversity of species, but also the evolutionary adaptations that enable them to adapt continually to shifting environmental conditions, such as changes in pest populations or climate. In situ conservation also ensures that along with target species, a host of other interlinked species are also preserved as a by-product. It is generally cheaper than ex situ methods (although not cheap). It may often be the only conservation option, for example for species with recalcitrant seeds.
In situ conservation measures involve designating specific areas as protected Areas. Protection may be offered at various levels, from complete protection and restriction of access, through various levels of permitted human use. It includes a system of protected areas of different categories, e.g. National Parks, Sanctuaries, Nature Reserves, Natural Monuments, Cultural Landscapes, Biosphere Reserves, etc. protected areas of India cover 156,700 km², roughly 4.95% of the total surface area.
The biosphere reserve concept has been developed through the Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Biosphere reserves are an attempt to reconcile the problems of conserving biodiversity and biological resources, with sustainable use of natural resources for people.
Seven of the fifteen biosphere reserves in India are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Program list are:
• Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
• Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
• Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve
• Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
• Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
• Nokrek Biosphere Reserve
• Simlipal Biosphere Reserve
There are more than 600 Protected Areas in India of which 96 are National Parks (38,029.18 km², 1.16% of India's total surface area), 15 are biosphere reserves and over 500 are Wildlife Sanctuaries. They include a variety of ecosystems and habitats. Some have been created in order to protect highly endangered species of wild plants and animals found nowhere else in the world.
The Great Himalayan National Park is the largest sanctuary in this ecosystem and is one of the last homes of the beautiful snow leopard.
Dachigam Sanctuary is the only place where the rare Hangul or Kashmir stag is found. There are several Sanctuaries in the Terai region,
Kaziranga National Park is the most famous which has elephant, wild buffalo, gaur, wild boar, swamp deer, and hog deer, in large numbers, as well as tiger and leopard. Its bird life is extremely rich and includes ducks, geese, pelicans and storks.
The Manas Sanctuary, in addition to the above Terai species, also includes the rare golden langur and the very rare pygmy hog, the smallest wild boar in the world. The florican is found only in a few undisturbed grasslands in the Terai sanctuaries.
In the sal forests of Madhya Pradesh, there are several Protected Areas. Kanha offers a wonderful opportunity to observe wild tigers from elephant back. It is the only Protected Area in which a sub species of the Barasingha is found.
Bharatpur is one of the most famous water bird sanctuaries in the world. Thousands of ducks, geese, herons, and other wading birds can be seen here. This is the only home of the very rare Siberian crane which migrates to India every winter. During the last 20 years, the 30 or 40 Siberian cranes have dwindled to only 2 or 3. During 2002-03 no cranes were seen and it is possible that this beautiful bird will never again come to India.
In the Thar desert, the wild life is protected in the Desert National Park. Here large numbers of black buck, neelgai and chinkara can be seen. The Great Indian Bustard lives in these arid lands.
Ranthambor was the most well known sanctuary for observing tigers in the wild till about 3 or 4 years ago. Since then many tigers have been killed by poachers.
The Great and the Little Rann of Kutch have been made into sanctuaries to protect the very rare wild ass, the flamingo, the star tortoise and the desert fox.
In Gujarat, the Gir Sanctuary protects the last population of the majestic Asiatic lion. This thorn and deciduous forest is also the home of large herds of chital, sambhar, and nilgai.
The Sanctuaries of the Western Ghats and associated hill ranges protect some of the most diverse forest types in the country. The few examples of highly threatened species include the Malabar giant squirrel, the flying squirrel and a variety of hill birds, several species of amphibians, reptiles and insects. These regions are also rich in highly endemic plant life. Sanctuaries such as Bhimashankar, Koyana, Chandoli and Radhanagari preserve this rich flora in Maharashtra, Bandipur, Bhadra, Dandeli, Nagarhole, etc. in Karnataka, and Eraviculum, Perambiculum, Periyar, Silent Valley, in Kerala.In the Nilgiri Hills the rich forest Sanctuaries protect some of the last pockets of the Indian elephant in South India. Examples include Bandipur, Madhumalai, Wynad and Bhadra. During the last 10 years, a large number of the great tusker elephants of this region have been ruthlessly killed for their ivory. Now very few of these magnificent animals are left in these jungles.
Two important sanctuaries meant for preservation of coastal ecosystems are the Chilka Lake and Point Calimere. The Sunderbans protect the largest mangrove delta in India. The Marine National Park in Gujarat protects shallow areas in the sea, islands, coral reefs and extensive mudflats.Over a hundred Protected Areas have been created in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to preserve their very special island ecosystems.
Ex Situ Conservation : - Outside the natural habitat
Conservation of a species is best done by protecting its habitat along with all the other species that live in it in nature. This is known as in-situ conservation, which is conserving a species in its own environment by creating National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. However, there are situations in which an endangered species is so close to extinction that unless alternate methods are instituted, the species may be rapidly driven to extinction. This strategy is known as ex-situ conservation, i.e. outside its natural habitat in a carefully controlled situation such as a botanical garden for plants or a zoological park for animals, where there is expertise to multiply the species under artificially managed conditions. These breeding programs for rare plants and animals are however more expensive than managing a Protected Area.
There is also another form of preserving a plant by preserving its germ plasm in a gene bank so that it can be used if needed in future. This is even more expensive. When an animal is on the brink of extinction, it must be carefully bred so that inbreeding does not lead to the genetic makeup becoming weak. Breeding from the same stock can lead to poorly adapted progeny or even inability to get enough offspring. Modern breeding programs are done in zoos that provide for all the animal’s needs, including enclosures that simulate their wild habitats. In India, successful ex situ conservation programs have been done for all our three species of crocodiles. This has been highly successful. Another recent success has been the breeding of the very rare pygmy hog in Gauhati zoo. Delhi zoo has successfully bred the rare Manipur brow antlered deer. However the most important step of a successful breeding program is the reintroduction of a species into its original wild habitat. This requires rehabilitation of the degraded habitat and removal of the other causes such as poaching, disturbance, or other manmade influences that have been the primary cause of reducing the population of the species.
FIGURE IS IN NEXT POST. OCEAN ZONES
Oceans cover more than 2/3rd of the earth’s surface. The ocean environment is characterized by its high concentration of salts and minerals. It supplies huge variety of sea-products and drugs. It also provides us iron, magnesium, phosphorous, natural gas.
Zones of oceans:
Intertidal zone: The ocean connect to the land via what is called the inter-tidal zone. Because of rising and falling tides, coastal areas are constantly changing, with various animals and marine plants living at the bottom, and on the seashore. Rocky coastal areas are host to fewer species due to the fact that only the highest of tides will reach the top of the cliffs.
Neritic zone: This is the relatively shallow ocean that extends to the edge of the continental shelf. Primary productivity here depends on planktonic algae growing as deep as the light can reach.
Epipelagic Zone: The surface layer of the ocean is known as the epipelagic zone and extends from the surface to 200 meters. It is also known as the sunlight zone because this is where most of the visible light exists.It is host to many species of fish and marine mammals, plankton ,and some floating seaweed. With the light come heat, responsible for the wide range of temperatures that occur in this zone.
Mesopelagic Zone: Below the epipelagic zone is the mesopelagic zone, extending from 200 meters to 1000 meters. The mesopelagic zone is sometimes referred to as the twilight zone or the midwater zone. The light that penetrates to this depth is extremely faint. It is in this zone that we begin to see the twinkling lights of bioluminescent creatures. A great diversity of strange and bizarre fishes can be found here.
Bathypelagic Zone: The next layer is called the bathypelagic zone. It is sometimes referred to as the midnight zone or the dark zone. This zone extends from 1000 meters down to 4000 meters. Here the only visible light is that produced by the creatures themselves. The water pressure at this depth is immense and temperature is low, In spite of the pressure, a surprisingly large number of creatures can be found here. Sperm whales can dive down to this level in search of food. Most of the animals that live at these depths are black or red in color due to the lack of light.
Abyssopelagic Zone: The next layer is called the abyssopelagic zone, also known as the abyssal zone or simply as the abyss. It extends from 4000 meters to 6000 meters. The name comes from a Greek word meaning "no bottom". The water temperature is near freezing, and there is no light at all. Very few creatures can be found at these crushing depths. Most of these are invertebrates such as basket stars and tiny squids. Three-quarters of the ocean floor lies within this zone. The deepest fish ever discovered was found in the Puerto Rico Trench at a depth of 8,372 meters.
Hadalpelagic Zone: Beyond the abyssopelagic zone lies the forbidding hadalpelagic zone. This layer extends from 6000 meters to the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean. These areas are mostly found in deep water trenches and canyons. The deepest point in the ocean is located in the Mariana Trench off the coast of Japan at 10,911m. The temperature of the water is just above freezing, and the pressure is an incredible eight tons per square inch. That is approximately the weight of 48 Boeing 747 jets. In spite of the pressure and temperature, life can still be found here. Invertebrates such as starfish and tube worms can thrive at these depths.
Role played by the oceans in terms of providing resources and regulating climate: Oceans represent the largest and most diverse of the ecosystems; The sea has always played an important role in the life of those people who live around its shores. Salt water evaporates and turns to rain which falls on the land regions, while most of the oxygen in our atmosphere is generated by algae. Algae is also responsible for the absorption of large amounts of carbon dioxide from our atmosphere.
The oceans, which cover more than 70% of the earth’s surface, play a fundamental and complex role in regulating climate. The oceans absorb huge amounts of solar energy; ocean currents transport this heat from the equator toward the Poles. In the past, long-term, natural oscillations in the oceans’ capacity to store and transport heat have led to global temperature changes.
As part of a vast planetary cycle of evaporation and rainfall, the oceans are also fundamental to the movement of water around the globe. Measuring changes in precipitation patterns, and understanding how they may lead to droughts in some regions and flooding in others, is a major part of predicting the potential effects of global climate change on human activities and natural ecosystems.
4 b). Define Ecosystem and explain pond ecosystem:
Ecosystem: An ecological community together with its environment, functioning as a unit or Community of living organisms (populations of species) interacting with one another and with the non-living environment.
Simple Pond Ecosystem:
FIGURE IS NEXT POST: SIMPLE POND ECOSYSTEM
Pond ecosystems range in size from just a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers. Scattered throughout the earth. Many ponds are seasonal, lasting just a couple of months (such as sessile pools) while lakes may exist for hundreds of years or more. Ponds and lakes may have limited species diversity since they are often isolated from one another and from other water sources like rivers and oceans. Lakes and ponds are divided into three different “zones” which are usually determined by depth and distance from the shoreline.
Littoral Zone: The topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond is the littoral zone. This zone is the warmest since it is shallow and can absorb more of the Sun’s heat. It sustains a fairly diverse community, which can include several species of algae (like diatoms), rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fishes, and amphibians. In the case of the insects, such as dragonflies and midges, only the egg and larvae stages are found in this zone. The vegetation and animals living in the littoral zone are food for other creatures such as turtles, snakes, and ducks.
Limnetic Zone: The near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone is the limnetic zone. The limnetic zone is well-lighted (like the littoral zone) and is dominated by plankton, both phytoplankton and zooplankton. Plankton are small organisms that play a crucial role in the food chain. Without aquatic plankton, there would be few living organisms in the world, and certainly no humans. A variety of freshwater fish also occupy this zone.
Profundal Zone: Plankton have short life spans—when they die, they fall into the deep-water part of the lake/pond, the profundal zone. This zone is much colder and denser than the other two. Little light penetrates all the way through the limnetic zone into the profundal zone. The fauna are heterotrophs, meaning that they eat dead organisms and use oxygen for cellular respiration.
Temperature varies in ponds and lakes seasonally. During the summer, the temperature can range from 4° C near the bottom to 22° C at the top. During the winter, the temperature at the bottom can be 4° C while the top is 0° C (ice). In between the two layers, there is a narrow zone called the thermocline where the temperature of the water changes rapidly. During the spring and fall seasons, there is a mixing of the top and bottom layers, usually due to winds, which results in a uniform water temperature of around 4° C. This mixing also circulates oxygen throughout the lake. Of course there are many lakes and ponds that do not freeze during the winter, thus the top layer would be a little warmer.
5 a). Elements of an ecosystem and their interdependency:
Ecosystem: Community of living organisms (populations of species or biota ) interacting with one another and with the non-living (abiotic) environment.
All living things that inhabit an environment are Biotic Factors. All nonliving things that inhabit an environment are Abiotic Factors.
Abiotic Components:
Water, air, temperature, soil, nutrients, minerals, light levels, moisture, precipitation, salinity.
Biotic Components:
Producers, consumers, decomposers
Plants, animals, bacteria/fungi
Biotic interactions with abiotic components include predation, competition, symbiosis, parasitism, commensalism etc.
FIFURE IS IN NEXT POST:Figure: Relationships within an ecosystem
Figure: Relationships within an ecosystem
Organisms that make up the biotic component of an ecosystem are usually classified as autotrophs and heterotrophs, based on how they get their food or organic nutrients they need to survive.
Autotrophs(producers): are organisms that can manufacture the organic compounds they need as nutrients from simple inorganic compounds obtained from their environment. In most terrestrial ecosystems, green plants are the producers. In aquatic ecosystems, most of the producers are phytoplankton, consisting of various species of of floating and drifting bacteria and protist.
Most producers make their organic nutrients they need through photosynthesis. The overall net chemical change can be summarized as follows:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + solar energy -----> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Some producers , mostly specialized bacteria, can extract inorganic compounds from their environment and convert them into organic nutrient compounds without the presence of sunlight. These producers are called chemosynthesis. An example of this is around the hydrothermal vents in some parts of the deep ocean. Bacteria carry out chemosynthesis by converting inorganic hydrogen sulfide to organic nutrients.
Heterotrophs(consumers)-are organisms which cannot synthesize the organic nutrients they need and get their organic nutrients by feeding on the tissues of producers or other consumers. There are several classes of of consumers, depending on there food source.
1.Primary consumers (herbivores) feed directly on plants or other producers.
2.Secondary consumers (carnivores) feed only on primary consumers.
3.Tertiary or higher level consumers feed only on animal-eating animals.
4.Omnivores can eat both plants and animals.Examples are pigs, rats, cockroaches, and humans.
5.Detrtivores (decomposers and detritus feeders) live off of detritus, parts of dead organisms and castoff fragments and waste of living organisms. Decomposers digest detritus by breaking down the complex organic molecules in these materials into simpler, inorganic compounds. Decomposers consist of various bacteria and fungi.
5 b). Bidiversity Types: Genetic Diversity and Species Diversity..
Biodiversity is a modern term which simply means " the variety of life on earth". This variety can be measured on several different levels.
Genetic - variation between individuals of the same species. This includes genetic variation between individuals in a single population , as well as variations between different populations of the same species. Genetic differences can now be measured using increasingly sophisticated techniques. These differences are the raw material of evolution.
Species - species diversity is the variety of species in a given region or area. This can either be determined by counting the number of different species present, or by determining taxonomic diversity. Taxonomic diversity is more precise and considers the relationship of species to each other. It can be measured by counting the number of different taxa (the main categories of classification) present. For example, a pond containing three species of snails and two fish, is more diverse than a pond containing five species of snails, even though they both contain the same number of species. High species biodiversity is not always necessarily a good thing. For example, a habitat may have high species biodiversity because many common and widespread species are invading it at the expense of species restricted to that habitat.
6 a). BIO-DIVERSITY hot-spots:
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened with destruction.
In 1988, British ecologist Norman Myers developed the concept of biodiversity hotspots to address the dilemma of identifying areas most important for preserving Species. Many areas of global significance face tremendous pressure from logging, agriculture, hunting, and Climate change. The hotspots strategy emphasizes risks of species extinction since species loss is irreversible. Since these species can only be found in specific areas, the loss of such areas would be considered “irreplaceable.” The strategy also emphasizes species endemism.
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot the regions must support at least 1,500 plant species found nowhere else in the world and Such areas must have lost at least 70 percent of its original Habitat.
It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of global plant life, probably occur in only 18 ‘hot spots’ in the world. Countries which have a relatively large proportion of these hot spots of diversity arereferred to as ‘megadiversity nations’.
Biodiversity Hotspots in India :
Western Ghats (Sahyadri Hills):
The Western Ghats , also known as the Sahyadri Hills , is a mountain chain running from the north to the South and is isolated by the Arabian Sea to the West, the arid Deccan Plateau to the East, and the Vindhya-Satpura ranges to the North. They have different vegetation types: scrub jungles and grasslands at low altitudes, dry and moist deciduous forests, montane grasslands and shoals, and the precious tropical evergreen and semi evergreen forests. Complex topography, high rainfall and relative inaccessibility have helped the region retain its biodiversity. Of the estimated 17000 species of flowering plants reported from india, about 4780 species are found in the western ghats region, of which 1720 (more than 1/3rd ) are endemic. Of the 372 species of mammals found in india, 63 are in the western Ghats, of which 16 are endemic. in addition 91 species of reptiles and 84(50%) species of amphibians(62%) are also endemic to these region. Some of endemic species in these region are:
Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri Hangul, Malabar Civet, Nilgiri marten, Indian gaint sqirrell, small travancore flying squirrel and Nilgiri Tahr.
Indo-Burma ( Eastern Himalayas ) :
Geographhically these area comprises Nepal, Bhutan and neighboring states of Northern India. There are 35000 plant species found in the Himalayas, of which 30% are endemic. Out of the 372 species of mammals found in india, 300 are in the western Ghats, of which 12 are endemic. In addition 48 out of 176 species of reptiles, 42 out of 85 species of amphibians and 15 out of 977 birds are also endemic to these region. The eastern Himalayas are also rich in wild plants of economic value and huge wealth of fungi, insects, mammals and birds.
6 b). In Situ Conservation :- within the natural habitat:
In situ conservation maintains not only the genetic diversity of species, but also the evolutionary adaptations that enable them to adapt continually to shifting environmental conditions, such as changes in pest populations or climate. In situ conservation also ensures that along with target species, a host of other interlinked species are also preserved as a by-product. It is generally cheaper than ex situ methods (although not cheap). It may often be the only conservation option, for example for species with recalcitrant seeds.
In situ conservation measures involve designating specific areas as protected Areas. Protection may be offered at various levels, from complete protection and restriction of access, through various levels of permitted human use. It includes a system of protected areas of different categories, e.g. National Parks, Sanctuaries, Nature Reserves, Natural Monuments, Cultural Landscapes, Biosphere Reserves, etc. protected areas of India cover 156,700 km², roughly 4.95% of the total surface area.
The biosphere reserve concept has been developed through the Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Biosphere reserves are an attempt to reconcile the problems of conserving biodiversity and biological resources, with sustainable use of natural resources for people.
Seven of the fifteen biosphere reserves in India are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Program list are:
• Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
• Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
• Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve
• Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
• Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
• Nokrek Biosphere Reserve
• Simlipal Biosphere Reserve
There are more than 600 Protected Areas in India of which 96 are National Parks (38,029.18 km², 1.16% of India's total surface area), 15 are biosphere reserves and over 500 are Wildlife Sanctuaries. They include a variety of ecosystems and habitats. Some have been created in order to protect highly endangered species of wild plants and animals found nowhere else in the world.
The Great Himalayan National Park is the largest sanctuary in this ecosystem and is one of the last homes of the beautiful snow leopard.
Dachigam Sanctuary is the only place where the rare Hangul or Kashmir stag is found. There are several Sanctuaries in the Terai region,
Kaziranga National Park is the most famous which has elephant, wild buffalo, gaur, wild boar, swamp deer, and hog deer, in large numbers, as well as tiger and leopard. Its bird life is extremely rich and includes ducks, geese, pelicans and storks.
The Manas Sanctuary, in addition to the above Terai species, also includes the rare golden langur and the very rare pygmy hog, the smallest wild boar in the world. The florican is found only in a few undisturbed grasslands in the Terai sanctuaries.
In the sal forests of Madhya Pradesh, there are several Protected Areas. Kanha offers a wonderful opportunity to observe wild tigers from elephant back. It is the only Protected Area in which a sub species of the Barasingha is found.
Bharatpur is one of the most famous water bird sanctuaries in the world. Thousands of ducks, geese, herons, and other wading birds can be seen here. This is the only home of the very rare Siberian crane which migrates to India every winter. During the last 20 years, the 30 or 40 Siberian cranes have dwindled to only 2 or 3. During 2002-03 no cranes were seen and it is possible that this beautiful bird will never again come to India.
In the Thar desert, the wild life is protected in the Desert National Park. Here large numbers of black buck, neelgai and chinkara can be seen. The Great Indian Bustard lives in these arid lands.
Ranthambor was the most well known sanctuary for observing tigers in the wild till about 3 or 4 years ago. Since then many tigers have been killed by poachers.
The Great and the Little Rann of Kutch have been made into sanctuaries to protect the very rare wild ass, the flamingo, the star tortoise and the desert fox.
In Gujarat, the Gir Sanctuary protects the last population of the majestic Asiatic lion. This thorn and deciduous forest is also the home of large herds of chital, sambhar, and nilgai.
The Sanctuaries of the Western Ghats and associated hill ranges protect some of the most diverse forest types in the country. The few examples of highly threatened species include the Malabar giant squirrel, the flying squirrel and a variety of hill birds, several species of amphibians, reptiles and insects. These regions are also rich in highly endemic plant life. Sanctuaries such as Bhimashankar, Koyana, Chandoli and Radhanagari preserve this rich flora in Maharashtra, Bandipur, Bhadra, Dandeli, Nagarhole, etc. in Karnataka, and Eraviculum, Perambiculum, Periyar, Silent Valley, in Kerala.In the Nilgiri Hills the rich forest Sanctuaries protect some of the last pockets of the Indian elephant in South India. Examples include Bandipur, Madhumalai, Wynad and Bhadra. During the last 10 years, a large number of the great tusker elephants of this region have been ruthlessly killed for their ivory. Now very few of these magnificent animals are left in these jungles.
Two important sanctuaries meant for preservation of coastal ecosystems are the Chilka Lake and Point Calimere. The Sunderbans protect the largest mangrove delta in India. The Marine National Park in Gujarat protects shallow areas in the sea, islands, coral reefs and extensive mudflats.Over a hundred Protected Areas have been created in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to preserve their very special island ecosystems.
Ex Situ Conservation : - Outside the natural habitat
Conservation of a species is best done by protecting its habitat along with all the other species that live in it in nature. This is known as in-situ conservation, which is conserving a species in its own environment by creating National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. However, there are situations in which an endangered species is so close to extinction that unless alternate methods are instituted, the species may be rapidly driven to extinction. This strategy is known as ex-situ conservation, i.e. outside its natural habitat in a carefully controlled situation such as a botanical garden for plants or a zoological park for animals, where there is expertise to multiply the species under artificially managed conditions. These breeding programs for rare plants and animals are however more expensive than managing a Protected Area.
There is also another form of preserving a plant by preserving its germ plasm in a gene bank so that it can be used if needed in future. This is even more expensive. When an animal is on the brink of extinction, it must be carefully bred so that inbreeding does not lead to the genetic makeup becoming weak. Breeding from the same stock can lead to poorly adapted progeny or even inability to get enough offspring. Modern breeding programs are done in zoos that provide for all the animal’s needs, including enclosures that simulate their wild habitats. In India, successful ex situ conservation programs have been done for all our three species of crocodiles. This has been highly successful. Another recent success has been the breeding of the very rare pygmy hog in Gauhati zoo. Delhi zoo has successfully bred the rare Manipur brow antlered deer. However the most important step of a successful breeding program is the reintroduction of a species into its original wild habitat. This requires rehabilitation of the degraded habitat and removal of the other causes such as poaching, disturbance, or other manmade influences that have been the primary cause of reducing the population of the species.
Wednesday, September 2, 2009
ES FIRST MID ANSWERS FOR ASSIGNMENT1
1a). Definition, Scope and importance of Environmental Studies:
Environment is derived from french word envirroner which means to encircle or to surround. All the living and non-living components surrounding an organism form its environment.
Environmental studies is the process of educating the people for preserving quality environment. The main scope of environmental studies includes:
- To get awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its related problems.
- To motivate the active participation in environmental protection and improvement.
- To develop skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.
- T o know the necessity of conservation of natural resources.
- To evaluate environmental programs in terms of social, economic, ecological and aesthetic factors.
- Environment protection and management, environmental laws, business administration and environmental engineering are emerging as new carrier opportunities.
- Environmental Science will be a growing field for the future with the growing concerns about our global warming and climate changes. Its scope is so wide that it has got relation with every science and scientific aspects in general and biology in particular and other fields such as ecology, botany, and meteorology besides all other major branches of the science, arts and commerce.
The Importance of environmental studies is extremely high in every major discipline, especially in the following aspects:
- Natural resources (flora, fauna, air, water, land, minerals)
- Biological diversity
- Marine life
- Inter-dependence of man and environment
- Environmental degradation
- Environmental problems and hazards
- Environmental pollution _ air, water, soil, noise
- Waste management
- Disaster management
- Protection of human health conditions and quality of life
- Conservation of energy, soil, wildlife, forests, water
- Renewable resources
- Eco-friendly and indigenous technologies
- Water resources management
- Sustainable development
- Sustainable agriculture
- Environmentally sound management of biotechnology
- Environmental policies and programs
- Environmental information resources
- Acts, laws and regulations
- Role of government and non-governmental agencies.
1 b). What are the various employment potential for environmental subject experts?
- There is a need for trained manpower at every level to deal with environmental issues like safe and clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions, clean and fresh air, fertile land, healthy food and sustainable development.
- Environment protection and management, environmental laws, business administration and environmental engineering are emerging as new carrier opportunities.
- Since the pollution control laws becoming more stringent, industries need environment experts to control pollution and disposal of wastes.
- Environmental experts are now in great demand in industries for adopting green technologies to reduce pollution and to cut down the costs of effluent treatment.
- These days, there is huge market world over for waste disposal and pollution control technologists and environmental experts.
- If we want to live in a clean, healthy, aesthetically beautiful, safe and secure environment for a long time and wish to hand over clean and safe earth to our children, we will have to include environmental experts in all developmental and policy making committees.
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2 a). i. Timber extraction:
Since ancient times, the extraction of timber and the use of wood has been one of man's most fundamental developments. From the implements used in daily life to the buildings that give him shelter and security, man has found wood a uniquely useful utility. Timber production and other wood-based industries still comprise an important part of economy of many countries. Paper production and other industries such as furniture making also important to a nation’s economy.
Commercial logging, a common form of deforestation is cutting trees for sale as timber and pulp. Logging for valuable timber, such as teak and mahogany not only involves a few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other by vines etc., Also road construction for making approach to the trees enable landless people to access the interiors of the forest, which in turn results in further deforestation and poaching. Timber extraction also leads to soil erosion, loss of fertility, landslides, loss of biodiversity, loss of tribal culture and extinction of tribal people.
Classification of timber extraction:
- Clear felling: ..
- Selective logging: ..
- Mechanized logging: …
- Hand logging: ..
- Reduced impact logging: ..
ii. Effects of dams & mining on forests:
Mining, industrial development and Hydro electrical dams also significant causes of deforestation, both in terms of the land they occupy and their influence on degradation of forest and wildlife habitat. The impact of large dams on ecosystems are more negative than positive and in many cases, this has led to serious irrecoverable loss of species and ecosystems. Dams also open up previously inaccessible forest and damage downstream ecosystems. The emission of the greenhouse gases from reservoirs due to rotting vegetation and carbon inflows from the catchment area is a one more recently identified impact. Dams causes water-logging and salinization of the surrounding lands
Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels such as coal often involves vast forest areas. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area. The forest area has declined at an average rate of 33% and the increase in non-forest area due to mining activities has resulted in relatively unstable zones leading to landslides. Mining increases access to otherwise remote forest areas and provide an opportunity for further activities, especially in places where population pressures already exist.
2 b). What are the methods of water conservation?
‘CATCH THE RAIN WHERE IT POURS’
Rainwater Harvesting:
Rainwater harvesting is the gathering and collection of water from the rooftop. The traditional method of rain water harvesting is the most effective and simple way to conserve the water. It means utilization of rain water for the domestic as well as agricultural purposes. There are three technical methods of rain water harvesting such as Catchment, Conveyance and storage.
Watershed Management:
Rivers originate in streams that flow down mountains and hill slopes. A group of small streams flow down hillsides to meet larger streams in the valley which forms the tributaries of major rivers. The management of a single unit of land with its water drainage system is called watershed management. It is a technique that has several components. This includes soil and water management and developing vegetative cover. The natural drainage pattern of a watershed unit if managed appropriately can bring about local prosperity by a year round abundance of water that improves the quality of human life in the area.
By constructing a series of long trenches and mounds along contours of the hill to hold the rainwater and allow it to percolate into the ground. This ensures that underground stores of water are fully recharged. This is enhanced by allowing grasses and shrubs to grow and by planting trees (mainly local species) which hold the soil and prevents it from being washed away in the monsoon. Local grass cover can however only increase if free grazing of domestic animals is prevented by stall feeding. The next measure is to make ‘nala’ plugs in the streams so that the water is held in the stream and does not rush down the hillside. In selected sites, several small check dams are built which together hold back larger amounts of water. All these measures constitute sound watershed management. It improves the water table and keeps the streams and nalas flowing throughout the year.
The 3 R’s ( Reduce, Reuse and Recycle )
Reduce:
- Use only as much water as you require.
- Close the tap well after use.
- While brushing your teeth do not leave the tap running, open it only when you require it.
- See that there are no leaking taps. Get a plumber to come in and seal all leaks.
- Use a washing machine that does not consume too much water.
- Do not leave the taps running while washing dishes and clothes.
- Install small showerheads to reduce the flow of water.
- Water in which the vegetables and fruits have been washed can be used to water the flowers and ornamental potted plants.
- Educate the mind of the people in the rural areas to save the water.
- Never throw the water unnecessary on roads which can be used for gardening and cleaning.
- Avoid unnecessary flushing the toilets. Dispose off the tissues, cigarettes and other waste into the bin instead of toilets.
- Water your lawn only when it is needed.
- Use a broom instead of hose to clean the sidewalks or to wash the car.
Recycle:
- Recycle the hot water from industries by using cooling towers etc.,
- Municipalities should equip sewage treatment plants at every level to reduce the water pollution levels and if purified efficiently can be used for the domestic supply once again.
Reuse:
- Never throw the water unnecessary on roads which can be used for gardening and cleaning.
- At the end of the day if you have water left in your water bottle do not throw it away, pour it over some plants.
- Use the remained soap water
- Reuse the water that vegetables are washed in for watering houseplants or for cleaning.
- When washing clothes by hand, the water should not be left running. Fill a laundry tub with water, and reuse wash and rinse water as much as possible. The used soapy water can be used for cleaning your country yard or garage area.
3 a). Explain the need of conservation of mineral resources.
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and identifiable physical properties. An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from which a useful substance, such as a metal, can be extracted and used to manufacture a useful product. Minerals are formed over a period of millions of years in the earth’s crust. Iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese and copper are important raw materials for industrial use. Important non-metal resources include coal, salt, clay, cement and silica. Stone used for building material, such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute another category of minerals. Minerals with special properties that humans value for their aesthetic and ornamental value are gems such as diamonds, emeralds, rubies. The luster of gold, silver and platinum is used for ornaments. Minerals in the form of oil, gas and coal were formed when ancient plants and animals were converted into underground fossil fuels.
Minerals are a non-renewable resource. It takes thousands of years for the formation and concentration of minerals. The rate of formation is much smaller than the rate at which the humans consume these minerals. Most of the minerals deposits such as fossil fuels may exhaust in near future. Mining causes devegetation and defacing of landscapes, earthquake, subsidence of land, Ground and surface water pollution, lowering water table, air pollution, occupational health hazards so, it is necessary to reduce wastage in the process of mining.
Minerals can be conserved in by the following measures:
• Use of improved technologies to allow use of low grade minerals at low costs.
• Using substitutes for the non-renewable resources.
• Use of scrap metals
• Recycling of metals is good way in which the mineral resources can be conserved efficiently.
• Mining safety.
3 b). Non-Conventional Energy Sources
The sources of energy which are being produced continuously in nature and are in exhaustible are called renewable sources of energy (or) non-conventional energy.
Some of these sources are:
(a) Wind energy
(b) Tidal energy
(c) Solar energy
(d) Geothermal Energy
(e) Ocean thermal energy
(f) Biomass energy
(a) Wind energy:
Winds are caused because of two factors.
1. The absorption of solar energy on the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.
2. The rotation of the earth about its axis and its motion around the Sun.
A wind mill converts the kinetic energy of moving air into Mechanical energy that can be either used directly to run the Machine or to run the generator to produce electricity.
(b) Tidal energy
Tides are generated primarily by the gravitational attraction between the earth and the Moon. They arise twice a day in Mid-Ocean. The tidal range is only a Meter.
Basically in a tidal power station water at high tide is first trapped in a artificial basin and then allowed to escape at low tide. The escaping water is used to drive water turbines, which in turn drive electrical generators.
(c) Solar energy
Energy from the sun is called solar energy. The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion reaction that take place deep in the Sun. Hydrogen nucleus fuse into helium nucleus. The energy from these reactions flow out from the sun and escape into space.
The solar energy that falls on India in one minute is enough to supply the energy needs of our country for one day. Man has made very little use of this enormous amount of solar energy that reaches the earth.
Solar Energy applications:
1. Heating and cooling of residential building.
2. Solar water heating.
3. Solar drying of agricultural and animal products.
4. Salt production by evaporation of seawater.
5. Solar cookers.
6. Solar engines for water pumping.
7. Solar Refrigeration.
8. Solar electric power generation.
9. Solar photo voltaic cells, which can be used for electricity.
10. Solar furnaces.
(d) Geothermal energy:
Temperature of the earth increases at a rate of 20° to 75°C per km, when we move down the earth surface. High temperature and high pressure steam fields exist below the earth’s surface in many places. The energy harnessed from the high temperature present inside the earth is called geothermal energy.
Natural Geysers and Artificial Geysers.
(e) Ocean thermal energy:
There is often large temperature difference between the surface level and deeper level of the tropical oceans. This temperature difference can be utilized to generate electricity or heating.
The energy due to the difference in temperature (around 20°C ) of water is called ocean thermal energy.
(f) Biomass energy:
Biomas is the organic matter, produced by plants or animals, used as source of energy. Most of the biomass is burned directly for heating, cooling and industrial purposes.
Biogas: is a mixture of methane, CO2 and H2S. Biogas contains 65% of methane gas as a major constituent. Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of animal dung or plant wastes in the presence of water
Biofuels: Ethanol, methanol and Gasohol.
Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen can be produced by thermal dissociation or photosynthesis or electrolysis of water. It posses high calorific value. It is non-polluting, because the combustion product is water.
Environment is derived from french word envirroner which means to encircle or to surround. All the living and non-living components surrounding an organism form its environment.
Environmental studies is the process of educating the people for preserving quality environment. The main scope of environmental studies includes:
- To get awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its related problems.
- To motivate the active participation in environmental protection and improvement.
- To develop skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.
- T o know the necessity of conservation of natural resources.
- To evaluate environmental programs in terms of social, economic, ecological and aesthetic factors.
- Environment protection and management, environmental laws, business administration and environmental engineering are emerging as new carrier opportunities.
- Environmental Science will be a growing field for the future with the growing concerns about our global warming and climate changes. Its scope is so wide that it has got relation with every science and scientific aspects in general and biology in particular and other fields such as ecology, botany, and meteorology besides all other major branches of the science, arts and commerce.
The Importance of environmental studies is extremely high in every major discipline, especially in the following aspects:
- Natural resources (flora, fauna, air, water, land, minerals)
- Biological diversity
- Marine life
- Inter-dependence of man and environment
- Environmental degradation
- Environmental problems and hazards
- Environmental pollution _ air, water, soil, noise
- Waste management
- Disaster management
- Protection of human health conditions and quality of life
- Conservation of energy, soil, wildlife, forests, water
- Renewable resources
- Eco-friendly and indigenous technologies
- Water resources management
- Sustainable development
- Sustainable agriculture
- Environmentally sound management of biotechnology
- Environmental policies and programs
- Environmental information resources
- Acts, laws and regulations
- Role of government and non-governmental agencies.
1 b). What are the various employment potential for environmental subject experts?
- There is a need for trained manpower at every level to deal with environmental issues like safe and clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions, clean and fresh air, fertile land, healthy food and sustainable development.
- Environment protection and management, environmental laws, business administration and environmental engineering are emerging as new carrier opportunities.
- Since the pollution control laws becoming more stringent, industries need environment experts to control pollution and disposal of wastes.
- Environmental experts are now in great demand in industries for adopting green technologies to reduce pollution and to cut down the costs of effluent treatment.
- These days, there is huge market world over for waste disposal and pollution control technologists and environmental experts.
- If we want to live in a clean, healthy, aesthetically beautiful, safe and secure environment for a long time and wish to hand over clean and safe earth to our children, we will have to include environmental experts in all developmental and policy making committees.
-
2 a). i. Timber extraction:
Since ancient times, the extraction of timber and the use of wood has been one of man's most fundamental developments. From the implements used in daily life to the buildings that give him shelter and security, man has found wood a uniquely useful utility. Timber production and other wood-based industries still comprise an important part of economy of many countries. Paper production and other industries such as furniture making also important to a nation’s economy.
Commercial logging, a common form of deforestation is cutting trees for sale as timber and pulp. Logging for valuable timber, such as teak and mahogany not only involves a few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other by vines etc., Also road construction for making approach to the trees enable landless people to access the interiors of the forest, which in turn results in further deforestation and poaching. Timber extraction also leads to soil erosion, loss of fertility, landslides, loss of biodiversity, loss of tribal culture and extinction of tribal people.
Classification of timber extraction:
- Clear felling: ..
- Selective logging: ..
- Mechanized logging: …
- Hand logging: ..
- Reduced impact logging: ..
ii. Effects of dams & mining on forests:
Mining, industrial development and Hydro electrical dams also significant causes of deforestation, both in terms of the land they occupy and their influence on degradation of forest and wildlife habitat. The impact of large dams on ecosystems are more negative than positive and in many cases, this has led to serious irrecoverable loss of species and ecosystems. Dams also open up previously inaccessible forest and damage downstream ecosystems. The emission of the greenhouse gases from reservoirs due to rotting vegetation and carbon inflows from the catchment area is a one more recently identified impact. Dams causes water-logging and salinization of the surrounding lands
Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels such as coal often involves vast forest areas. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area. The forest area has declined at an average rate of 33% and the increase in non-forest area due to mining activities has resulted in relatively unstable zones leading to landslides. Mining increases access to otherwise remote forest areas and provide an opportunity for further activities, especially in places where population pressures already exist.
2 b). What are the methods of water conservation?
‘CATCH THE RAIN WHERE IT POURS’
Rainwater Harvesting:
Rainwater harvesting is the gathering and collection of water from the rooftop. The traditional method of rain water harvesting is the most effective and simple way to conserve the water. It means utilization of rain water for the domestic as well as agricultural purposes. There are three technical methods of rain water harvesting such as Catchment, Conveyance and storage.
Watershed Management:
Rivers originate in streams that flow down mountains and hill slopes. A group of small streams flow down hillsides to meet larger streams in the valley which forms the tributaries of major rivers. The management of a single unit of land with its water drainage system is called watershed management. It is a technique that has several components. This includes soil and water management and developing vegetative cover. The natural drainage pattern of a watershed unit if managed appropriately can bring about local prosperity by a year round abundance of water that improves the quality of human life in the area.
By constructing a series of long trenches and mounds along contours of the hill to hold the rainwater and allow it to percolate into the ground. This ensures that underground stores of water are fully recharged. This is enhanced by allowing grasses and shrubs to grow and by planting trees (mainly local species) which hold the soil and prevents it from being washed away in the monsoon. Local grass cover can however only increase if free grazing of domestic animals is prevented by stall feeding. The next measure is to make ‘nala’ plugs in the streams so that the water is held in the stream and does not rush down the hillside. In selected sites, several small check dams are built which together hold back larger amounts of water. All these measures constitute sound watershed management. It improves the water table and keeps the streams and nalas flowing throughout the year.
The 3 R’s ( Reduce, Reuse and Recycle )
Reduce:
- Use only as much water as you require.
- Close the tap well after use.
- While brushing your teeth do not leave the tap running, open it only when you require it.
- See that there are no leaking taps. Get a plumber to come in and seal all leaks.
- Use a washing machine that does not consume too much water.
- Do not leave the taps running while washing dishes and clothes.
- Install small showerheads to reduce the flow of water.
- Water in which the vegetables and fruits have been washed can be used to water the flowers and ornamental potted plants.
- Educate the mind of the people in the rural areas to save the water.
- Never throw the water unnecessary on roads which can be used for gardening and cleaning.
- Avoid unnecessary flushing the toilets. Dispose off the tissues, cigarettes and other waste into the bin instead of toilets.
- Water your lawn only when it is needed.
- Use a broom instead of hose to clean the sidewalks or to wash the car.
Recycle:
- Recycle the hot water from industries by using cooling towers etc.,
- Municipalities should equip sewage treatment plants at every level to reduce the water pollution levels and if purified efficiently can be used for the domestic supply once again.
Reuse:
- Never throw the water unnecessary on roads which can be used for gardening and cleaning.
- At the end of the day if you have water left in your water bottle do not throw it away, pour it over some plants.
- Use the remained soap water
- Reuse the water that vegetables are washed in for watering houseplants or for cleaning.
- When washing clothes by hand, the water should not be left running. Fill a laundry tub with water, and reuse wash and rinse water as much as possible. The used soapy water can be used for cleaning your country yard or garage area.
3 a). Explain the need of conservation of mineral resources.
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and identifiable physical properties. An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from which a useful substance, such as a metal, can be extracted and used to manufacture a useful product. Minerals are formed over a period of millions of years in the earth’s crust. Iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese and copper are important raw materials for industrial use. Important non-metal resources include coal, salt, clay, cement and silica. Stone used for building material, such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute another category of minerals. Minerals with special properties that humans value for their aesthetic and ornamental value are gems such as diamonds, emeralds, rubies. The luster of gold, silver and platinum is used for ornaments. Minerals in the form of oil, gas and coal were formed when ancient plants and animals were converted into underground fossil fuels.
Minerals are a non-renewable resource. It takes thousands of years for the formation and concentration of minerals. The rate of formation is much smaller than the rate at which the humans consume these minerals. Most of the minerals deposits such as fossil fuels may exhaust in near future. Mining causes devegetation and defacing of landscapes, earthquake, subsidence of land, Ground and surface water pollution, lowering water table, air pollution, occupational health hazards so, it is necessary to reduce wastage in the process of mining.
Minerals can be conserved in by the following measures:
• Use of improved technologies to allow use of low grade minerals at low costs.
• Using substitutes for the non-renewable resources.
• Use of scrap metals
• Recycling of metals is good way in which the mineral resources can be conserved efficiently.
• Mining safety.
3 b). Non-Conventional Energy Sources
The sources of energy which are being produced continuously in nature and are in exhaustible are called renewable sources of energy (or) non-conventional energy.
Some of these sources are:
(a) Wind energy
(b) Tidal energy
(c) Solar energy
(d) Geothermal Energy
(e) Ocean thermal energy
(f) Biomass energy
(a) Wind energy:
Winds are caused because of two factors.
1. The absorption of solar energy on the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.
2. The rotation of the earth about its axis and its motion around the Sun.
A wind mill converts the kinetic energy of moving air into Mechanical energy that can be either used directly to run the Machine or to run the generator to produce electricity.
(b) Tidal energy
Tides are generated primarily by the gravitational attraction between the earth and the Moon. They arise twice a day in Mid-Ocean. The tidal range is only a Meter.
Basically in a tidal power station water at high tide is first trapped in a artificial basin and then allowed to escape at low tide. The escaping water is used to drive water turbines, which in turn drive electrical generators.
(c) Solar energy
Energy from the sun is called solar energy. The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion reaction that take place deep in the Sun. Hydrogen nucleus fuse into helium nucleus. The energy from these reactions flow out from the sun and escape into space.
The solar energy that falls on India in one minute is enough to supply the energy needs of our country for one day. Man has made very little use of this enormous amount of solar energy that reaches the earth.
Solar Energy applications:
1. Heating and cooling of residential building.
2. Solar water heating.
3. Solar drying of agricultural and animal products.
4. Salt production by evaporation of seawater.
5. Solar cookers.
6. Solar engines for water pumping.
7. Solar Refrigeration.
8. Solar electric power generation.
9. Solar photo voltaic cells, which can be used for electricity.
10. Solar furnaces.
(d) Geothermal energy:
Temperature of the earth increases at a rate of 20° to 75°C per km, when we move down the earth surface. High temperature and high pressure steam fields exist below the earth’s surface in many places. The energy harnessed from the high temperature present inside the earth is called geothermal energy.
Natural Geysers and Artificial Geysers.
(e) Ocean thermal energy:
There is often large temperature difference between the surface level and deeper level of the tropical oceans. This temperature difference can be utilized to generate electricity or heating.
The energy due to the difference in temperature (around 20°C ) of water is called ocean thermal energy.
(f) Biomass energy:
Biomas is the organic matter, produced by plants or animals, used as source of energy. Most of the biomass is burned directly for heating, cooling and industrial purposes.
Biogas: is a mixture of methane, CO2 and H2S. Biogas contains 65% of methane gas as a major constituent. Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of animal dung or plant wastes in the presence of water
Biofuels: Ethanol, methanol and Gasohol.
Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen can be produced by thermal dissociation or photosynthesis or electrolysis of water. It posses high calorific value. It is non-polluting, because the combustion product is water.
Saturday, August 29, 2009
ES QUESTIONS
THE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
1. Definition, Scope and Importance of Environmental Education.
2. What is the need of studying Environmental issues?
3. Define Environmental Studies. Explain why Environmental Studies is a multi-disciplinary subject?
4. What are the various types of employment potential for environmental subject experts/
5. Explain the fundamentals of Environment.
6. Discuss the objectives of Environmental Management.
7. Explain the branches of Environmental Education.
8. Why Environmental Awareness is is mandatory for all the people in society (or) How would Environmental Awareness help to protect our Environment?
9. What are the different activities that can be taken up to increase public awareness of environmental issues? Explain how they help in better Environmental Management.
10. Explain the different areas of conservation to which people belonging to different disciplines can contribute.
11. Describe the role of any twelve of the following Naturalists or Environmentalists or ENGO’s with reference to ‘Society and Environment’:
(1). Sunderlal Bahuguna (2). Medha Patkar (3). Indira Gandhi (4). Salim Ali
(5). Rachel Carson (6). E O Wilson (7). Sunitha Narain (8). Gro Halem Brutland
(9). Menaka Gandhi (10). Williun Wordsworth (11). Louis Pasteur (12). Jimmy Carter
(13). Ramana Maharshi (14). Helen Kellaer (15). Wangari Mathai (16). Babe Ampte
(17). J C Bose (18).Maurice Strong (19).Charles Darwin (20).George Perkins Marsh
(21). M S Swaminathan (22). Anil Agarwal (23). M C Mehtha (24). Madhav Gadgil
(25). James Lovelock (26). S P Godrej (27). Aldo Leopold (28). BNHS (29). WWF
(30). UNICEF (31). UNEP (32). UNO (33). MOEF (34). CSE …….
NATURAL RESOURCES
1. Differentiate Recyclable, Renewable and Non-renewable Resources.
2. Briefly discuss: Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and Biosphere.
3. Discuss Natural Resources and associated problems by focusing your attention on: (a). Unequal consumption of natural resources (b). Planning land use (c). The need of sustainable life styles.
4. Discuss about the equitable use and conservation of natural resources.
5. Discuss the equitable use and conservation of Natural Resources.
6. Explain the role of individual in conservation of Natural Resources.
7. What is the relationship between fair land distribution and appropriate land use?
8. What is the use of Forest Resources in ecological balance?
9. What are the major causes and consequences of Deforestation?
10. How would dams effect forests and tribal people?
11. Describe the impact of modern agricultural practice on the environment.
12. Write a brief note on benefits and problems of building of large dams over rivers.
13. How can you prevent the depletion of ground water resources?
14. Write short notes on (a). Timber Extraction (b). Conflicts over Water (c). Floods (d). Over-grazing (e). Over utilization of ground water
15. Write short notes on (a). Timber Extraction (b).Effects of dams & mining on forests.
16. What are the major water reservoirs of the world? How much water is fresh and where is it?
17. What is mean by (a). Eutrophication (b). Super fest (c). Shifting Cultivation (d). Water logging (e). Soil erosion (f). Salinization (g). Land degradation
18. What is soil erosion? How can it be checked?
19. What are the methods of Water Conservation?
20. What are the fertilizer and pesticide related problems of Food Resources?
21. Discuss the major environmental impacts of mineral extraction. (OR) Explain the need of conservation of Mineral Resources.
22. Give some examples of strategic minerals. Where are the largest supplies of these minerals located?
23. What are the advantages of recycling minerals?
24. Describe ways of conserving metals and other mineral resources.
25. What are the environmental hazards associated with mineral extraction?
26. Write a note on growing energy needs and it’s demand in India.
27. Describe the Non-conventional energy resources.
28. Discuss the use of Bio-energy (biomass, biogas) as a non-conventional energy.
29. Give a note on Wind, Solar and Geo-thermal energy resources in India
30. What are the advantages of hydrogen energy in view of Environmental quality?
31. Enumerate the pros and cons of using Nuclear Energy.
32. Explain the contribution to the global pollution of the following;
(a). Fossil fuels (petrol, diesel, natural gas, etc,..) (b). Coal
33. Explain the following (a). Hydal Energy (b) Ocean thermal energy (c) Tidal Energy
34. Explain world food problems with examples.
ECOSYSTEMS
1. Define Ecosystem, Describe the structure of an ecosystem. Explain the relationship between producers, consumers and decomposers.
2. Enumerate the branches of ecology.
3. Discuss about the elements of an ecosystem (OR) Explain Biotic and Abiotic structure of an ecosystem.
4. List the different components of the biosphere and their interdependency.
5. Discuss the adaptation by natural selection.
6. Define Ecosystem and Describe the functions of an ecosystem.
7. Describe in detail about the ecological succession
8. Discuss the evaluation of climax ecosystem along with an example.
9. Explain the primary and secondary succession.
10. Distinguish between Food Chain and Food Web
11. Distinguish between Grazing Food chain and Detritus Food chain.
12. What is ecological pyramid? Show ecological pyramids for a pond, a forest and a desert.
13. What are the ecological pyramids? Explain why some of these pyramids are up right while other are inverted in different ecosystems.
14. How is the universal model of energy flow useful in ecosystem?
15. Give an account of energy and nutrient flow in an ecosystem.
16. Explain the bio-geochemical cycles in sustaining life on earth.
17. With a neat sketch explain how the element carbon is recycled in nature.
18. Explain the functioning of hydrological cycle with a neat figure.
19. Explain the functioning of sedimentary cycles with a neat figure.
20. Explain briefly characteristic features and functions of Forest ecosystem.
21. Explain types of forest ecosystems in India.
22. Explain the Grassland ecosystems in India.
23. What are the commonalities and differences between a marine ecosystem and a forest ecosystem?
24. Write a note on arctic tundra.
25. What are the various components of desert ecosystem?
26. What are the biotic components of aquatic ecosystem, explain.
27. Define ecosystem. And explain characteristic features of pond ecosystem.
28. Define lapse rate and temperature inversion.
29. Explain Eutrophication, Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification.
30. Discuss the major features of a stream (river) that differ from that of lake.
31. Discuss the salient features of estuarine ecosystem.
32. Discuss the zonation in an ocean, what role is played by oceans in terms of providing resources and regulating climate.
33. Ecotone, Edge effect, Keystone species, Coral reefs
4.BIODIVERSITY
1. Classify the types of biodiversity and explain in detail with examples.
2. Differentiate between Genetic diversity and Species diversity.
3. List the environmental services offered by biodiversity. (biodiversity values)
4. Give the bio-geographical classification of India.
5. Write a short note on biodiversity consumptive use and productive use.
6. What is the role played by the forest in biodiversity in India?
7. How does the Indian marine environment effect the biodiversity?
8. Identify and explain the present day major threats to biodiversity in India. (a). Habitat Loss (b). Poaching of wild life (c). Man-Wildlife conflict
9. Extinction is part of evolution process, still why should we bother about the ongoing species extinction.
10. Biological diversity is an index of nation wealth. Explain.
11. Discuss the status of India as a mega diversity nation of biodiversity (OR) What is the role played by India as mega diversity nation.
12. Explain the biodiversity at local level.
13. Explain the climatic changes that are affecting the biodiversity due to environmental pollution globally.
14. How can the increasing population of India effect its biodiversity?
15. What are objectives of identifying biodiversity hot-spots? Give the Global biodiversity hot-spots.
16. Distinguish between the endemic and endangered species and name few endemic and endangered species of India.
17. Mention the important sites in India identified for the conservation of endemic species and list the major endemic species of India.
18. Explain the need of public awareness in the conservation of biodiversity in India.
19. What are the various programs organized by the government of India towards conservation of biodiversity.
20. Discuss the Bio-piracy & Ecological foot print
21. Explain in detail In-Situ and Ex-Situ Conservation of biodiversity.
22. Differentiate between In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation principles.
1. Definition, Scope and Importance of Environmental Education.
2. What is the need of studying Environmental issues?
3. Define Environmental Studies. Explain why Environmental Studies is a multi-disciplinary subject?
4. What are the various types of employment potential for environmental subject experts/
5. Explain the fundamentals of Environment.
6. Discuss the objectives of Environmental Management.
7. Explain the branches of Environmental Education.
8. Why Environmental Awareness is is mandatory for all the people in society (or) How would Environmental Awareness help to protect our Environment?
9. What are the different activities that can be taken up to increase public awareness of environmental issues? Explain how they help in better Environmental Management.
10. Explain the different areas of conservation to which people belonging to different disciplines can contribute.
11. Describe the role of any twelve of the following Naturalists or Environmentalists or ENGO’s with reference to ‘Society and Environment’:
(1). Sunderlal Bahuguna (2). Medha Patkar (3). Indira Gandhi (4). Salim Ali
(5). Rachel Carson (6). E O Wilson (7). Sunitha Narain (8). Gro Halem Brutland
(9). Menaka Gandhi (10). Williun Wordsworth (11). Louis Pasteur (12). Jimmy Carter
(13). Ramana Maharshi (14). Helen Kellaer (15). Wangari Mathai (16). Babe Ampte
(17). J C Bose (18).Maurice Strong (19).Charles Darwin (20).George Perkins Marsh
(21). M S Swaminathan (22). Anil Agarwal (23). M C Mehtha (24). Madhav Gadgil
(25). James Lovelock (26). S P Godrej (27). Aldo Leopold (28). BNHS (29). WWF
(30). UNICEF (31). UNEP (32). UNO (33). MOEF (34). CSE …….
NATURAL RESOURCES
1. Differentiate Recyclable, Renewable and Non-renewable Resources.
2. Briefly discuss: Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and Biosphere.
3. Discuss Natural Resources and associated problems by focusing your attention on: (a). Unequal consumption of natural resources (b). Planning land use (c). The need of sustainable life styles.
4. Discuss about the equitable use and conservation of natural resources.
5. Discuss the equitable use and conservation of Natural Resources.
6. Explain the role of individual in conservation of Natural Resources.
7. What is the relationship between fair land distribution and appropriate land use?
8. What is the use of Forest Resources in ecological balance?
9. What are the major causes and consequences of Deforestation?
10. How would dams effect forests and tribal people?
11. Describe the impact of modern agricultural practice on the environment.
12. Write a brief note on benefits and problems of building of large dams over rivers.
13. How can you prevent the depletion of ground water resources?
14. Write short notes on (a). Timber Extraction (b). Conflicts over Water (c). Floods (d). Over-grazing (e). Over utilization of ground water
15. Write short notes on (a). Timber Extraction (b).Effects of dams & mining on forests.
16. What are the major water reservoirs of the world? How much water is fresh and where is it?
17. What is mean by (a). Eutrophication (b). Super fest (c). Shifting Cultivation (d). Water logging (e). Soil erosion (f). Salinization (g). Land degradation
18. What is soil erosion? How can it be checked?
19. What are the methods of Water Conservation?
20. What are the fertilizer and pesticide related problems of Food Resources?
21. Discuss the major environmental impacts of mineral extraction. (OR) Explain the need of conservation of Mineral Resources.
22. Give some examples of strategic minerals. Where are the largest supplies of these minerals located?
23. What are the advantages of recycling minerals?
24. Describe ways of conserving metals and other mineral resources.
25. What are the environmental hazards associated with mineral extraction?
26. Write a note on growing energy needs and it’s demand in India.
27. Describe the Non-conventional energy resources.
28. Discuss the use of Bio-energy (biomass, biogas) as a non-conventional energy.
29. Give a note on Wind, Solar and Geo-thermal energy resources in India
30. What are the advantages of hydrogen energy in view of Environmental quality?
31. Enumerate the pros and cons of using Nuclear Energy.
32. Explain the contribution to the global pollution of the following;
(a). Fossil fuels (petrol, diesel, natural gas, etc,..) (b). Coal
33. Explain the following (a). Hydal Energy (b) Ocean thermal energy (c) Tidal Energy
34. Explain world food problems with examples.
ECOSYSTEMS
1. Define Ecosystem, Describe the structure of an ecosystem. Explain the relationship between producers, consumers and decomposers.
2. Enumerate the branches of ecology.
3. Discuss about the elements of an ecosystem (OR) Explain Biotic and Abiotic structure of an ecosystem.
4. List the different components of the biosphere and their interdependency.
5. Discuss the adaptation by natural selection.
6. Define Ecosystem and Describe the functions of an ecosystem.
7. Describe in detail about the ecological succession
8. Discuss the evaluation of climax ecosystem along with an example.
9. Explain the primary and secondary succession.
10. Distinguish between Food Chain and Food Web
11. Distinguish between Grazing Food chain and Detritus Food chain.
12. What is ecological pyramid? Show ecological pyramids for a pond, a forest and a desert.
13. What are the ecological pyramids? Explain why some of these pyramids are up right while other are inverted in different ecosystems.
14. How is the universal model of energy flow useful in ecosystem?
15. Give an account of energy and nutrient flow in an ecosystem.
16. Explain the bio-geochemical cycles in sustaining life on earth.
17. With a neat sketch explain how the element carbon is recycled in nature.
18. Explain the functioning of hydrological cycle with a neat figure.
19. Explain the functioning of sedimentary cycles with a neat figure.
20. Explain briefly characteristic features and functions of Forest ecosystem.
21. Explain types of forest ecosystems in India.
22. Explain the Grassland ecosystems in India.
23. What are the commonalities and differences between a marine ecosystem and a forest ecosystem?
24. Write a note on arctic tundra.
25. What are the various components of desert ecosystem?
26. What are the biotic components of aquatic ecosystem, explain.
27. Define ecosystem. And explain characteristic features of pond ecosystem.
28. Define lapse rate and temperature inversion.
29. Explain Eutrophication, Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification.
30. Discuss the major features of a stream (river) that differ from that of lake.
31. Discuss the salient features of estuarine ecosystem.
32. Discuss the zonation in an ocean, what role is played by oceans in terms of providing resources and regulating climate.
33. Ecotone, Edge effect, Keystone species, Coral reefs
4.BIODIVERSITY
1. Classify the types of biodiversity and explain in detail with examples.
2. Differentiate between Genetic diversity and Species diversity.
3. List the environmental services offered by biodiversity. (biodiversity values)
4. Give the bio-geographical classification of India.
5. Write a short note on biodiversity consumptive use and productive use.
6. What is the role played by the forest in biodiversity in India?
7. How does the Indian marine environment effect the biodiversity?
8. Identify and explain the present day major threats to biodiversity in India. (a). Habitat Loss (b). Poaching of wild life (c). Man-Wildlife conflict
9. Extinction is part of evolution process, still why should we bother about the ongoing species extinction.
10. Biological diversity is an index of nation wealth. Explain.
11. Discuss the status of India as a mega diversity nation of biodiversity (OR) What is the role played by India as mega diversity nation.
12. Explain the biodiversity at local level.
13. Explain the climatic changes that are affecting the biodiversity due to environmental pollution globally.
14. How can the increasing population of India effect its biodiversity?
15. What are objectives of identifying biodiversity hot-spots? Give the Global biodiversity hot-spots.
16. Distinguish between the endemic and endangered species and name few endemic and endangered species of India.
17. Mention the important sites in India identified for the conservation of endemic species and list the major endemic species of India.
18. Explain the need of public awareness in the conservation of biodiversity in India.
19. What are the various programs organized by the government of India towards conservation of biodiversity.
20. Discuss the Bio-piracy & Ecological foot print
21. Explain in detail In-Situ and Ex-Situ Conservation of biodiversity.
22. Differentiate between In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation principles.
Wednesday, July 15, 2009
The Creation of the Solar System & Earth Atmosphere
The Creation of the Solar System
The fusion reaction explosion sent its matter hurtling at great speed outward in every direction in all sizes and speeds, both gases and molten solids, from the size of small particles to the size of the giant planets. Some of it was hurled out at such a great velocity that it was lost forever to other regions of the galaxy.
• THE BIRTH OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM - About four and one half billion years ago our protosun was slowly collapsing under the force of its gravity. As it did this, due to the immense compression caused by gravity it became extremely hot. Millions of degrees centigrade. The more compact it got, the hotter it got. It was not alone in the sky, it was part of a community of stars and protostars that lay in the outer regions of our galaxy, the Milky Way. The proto-sun was being swept around the galaxy, along with its neighbors, at the tremendous speed of over 500,000 miles per hour - relative to the center of the galaxy.
So far it had no satellites, (planets, moons, etc.) it’s gravity had sucked in most of the star dust from its vicinity for hundreds of millions of miles in every direction. It was getting close to the temperature and pressure required for a nuclear fusion reaction to occur. The protosun was like a giant nuclear hydrogen bomb waiting to be detonated.
• THE BIG BLAST - When this tremendous event finally did occur, the nuclear fusion reactions started up in the hottest most dense area of the Sun. Tremendous amounts of radiant nuclear energy were suddenly created in the innards of the Sun. All of this newly released energy caused a sudden sustained violent increase in the pressure and temperature of the Sun creating tremendous chain reactions throughout its core region.
These reactions did not just cause the star to began shining. It caused the Sun to violently expand to many times its former size and explode. The explosion sent its matter hurtling at great speed outward in every direction in all sizes and speeds, both gases and molten solids, from the size of small particles to the size of the giant planets. Some of it was hurled out at such a great velocity that it was lost forever to other regions of the galaxy.
• THE BIRTH OF THE PLANETS AND OTHER SOLAR DEBRIS - Much of the debris eventually fell back, into the speeding Sun, if its trajectory was just right. Other debris, after it had expended its outward energy and had not broken free of the Sun's gravity, began to fall back toward the Sun.
It fell back toward the Sun, but due to the Sun's great galactic speed and changing position always missed the Sun. This is the matter that became the planets, moons, comets, asteroids of our solar system. They are the survivors.
It is like a skeet shooter who always aims directly at the clay pigeon, not allowing for a lead. His shot will never strike the pigeon simply because it will always have moved by the time the shot gets there. This is the basis on how our solar system works. It was a time of tremendous chaos in the solar vicinity, with all the matter rushing back toward the Sun from every direction crashing into each other and falling back into the Sun.
• THE PULSATING SUN - After the initial explosion, the rapidly expanding sun began to cool. As it cooled the area that a fusion reaction could take place became smaller and smaller. Some of the fusion reaction began to shut down. The expansion eventually came to a halt as the fusion energy was no longer powerful enough to sustain the expanding outward momentum. Finally the expansion stopped altogether and then the Sun began to contract.
This at first stabilized the fusion reaction and then as the gravitational contraction of the Sun continued, the area of the reaction again began to increase. When the Sun had contracted to the point where the area of reaction was again very large, the Sun again expanded and exploded outward with tremendous force sending more matter hurling out into space.
• THE STABLE STAR?? - This time however the expansion and explosion was not as powerful as the first event. This sequence of events happened again and again, each time the explosion was weaker and the expansion and contraction not as great as the previous event. This pulsation of the Sun gradually diminished, after millions of Earth years, until it finally stabilized and became a mature star. This expansion and contraction rhythm may continue today at a very attenuated pace, perhaps causing our regularly reoccurring ice ages.
Scientists have determined that the glaciers of our last ice age began receding at both poles simultaneously indicating; a period of diminished solar radiation could have caused these ice ages. This periodic expansion and contraction is simply the balancing act of the Sun's gravitational and nuclear fusion forces.
• THE SOLAR SYSTEM EMERGES OUT OF THE CHAOS - Eventually out of all this chaos and turmoil our orderly solar system began to emerge. The Sun had slowly settled down from its tremendous expansions and contractions of earlier times. Most of its matter had fallen back into the Sun, some had been lost and a small percentage had begun oscillating back and forth across the Sun’s path.
The sun began to emit a constant amount of radiant energy that did not fluctuate too much. (This made the existence of life on Earth possible). Its solar flares became less energetic. At that time they still occasionally spit out globs of molten matter and gases into space, some of which also became comets and other solar bodies. These prominences still occur today but now they do not have enough velocity to overcome the gravity of the mature Sun.
The matter, hurling out in these present prominences does not have enough energy to escape from the vicinity of the Sun, into space and so, it falls back into the Sun. The solar flares that we observe today are very tame in comparison with the tremendously powerful solar prominences that occurred in the past ages when significant amounts of matter were hurled free of the Sun's vicinity, into possible orbit.
• THE REASON FOR BODE'S LAW - The debris of the early convulsions of the Sun (our solar bodies, the planets, moons, comets, asteroids etc.) are all constantly falling directly toward the Sun. Due to its tremendous galactic velocity, the Sun's position is constantly changing, so they seldom strike it. Millions of collisions have however, occurred between all the debris over the ages.
The potmarks on the Moon, Mars and our Earth, etc. are evidence of the enormous number of these collisions. The bodies that collided with other bodies either fell back into the Sun or they were absorbed by the larger bodies of the solar system. The asteroid belt is probably made up of debris from a collision of two fairly large solar bodies whose paths crossed.
Over a period of millions of years, the solar bodies settled into their present orbits. The planets, moons etc. that are a present part of our solar system are the survivors of the millions of collisions that took place when the solar system was younger. They are now well spaced from each other and since they maintain their respective distances from the Sun are in little danger of colliding with each other. They are the survivors. This is the reason for Bode's Law. Comets are the exception to this rule.
• THE SURVIORS BEGAN TO LINE UP IN THE SUN/JUPITER PLANE. - The smaller planets and moons that survived all the collisions began to line up in the same plane as the larger planets. The planets, except for Pluto lined up in the approximate plane of Jupiter and the Sun. Pluto will probably line up eventually. The orbits' of the comets are tilted and are very elongated. They are in danger of someday colliding with another body in the solar system. They are probably much younger then the other solar bodies. They may have been born from later solar prominences or may be stray bodies that came from outside our system.
• COMETS ARE THE MAVERICKS - Halley's Comet travels in an orbit that is apparently opposite to the orbital direction of the other planets and has a long elliptical path that crosses the other planet's planes. It is in danger of possibly eventually colliding with one of the planets. Its plane intersects with the other planets' plane, between Mars and Earth's orbit.
Even though the comet appears to be orbiting in a direction opposite to that of the planets, it actually approaches the Sun from the rear of its galactic path as do all the other permanent bodies in the solar system. They are all (planets, moons, asteroids, and comets) traveling in the same galactic direction and at nearly the same average speed as the Sun. Halley's comet is actually traveling in the same direction as the rest of the planets. Its perihelion is on the opposite side of the Sun however, giving the illusion that its apparent orbital direction is retrograding relative to the planets.
• THE EARTH'S ROTATION IS SLOWING! - Our Earth was spinning very fast when it was spit out of the Sun as a molten glob four and one half billion years ago in the initial explosion. (Venus was spinning in an opposite direction when it was spit out and is still doing the same). The Earth settled down in a very fortunate orbit for the existence of life. At 93 million miles distance from the Sun it receives just about the right amount of radiant energy.
Its spinning has gradually slowed down over these billion of years and is now settled into a comfortable 24 hour rotation at the present time. It will be millions of years in the future before it slows to a complete halt as our less massive moon has already. - The Earth's Slowing Rotation.
• THE EARTH'S CHANGING SHAPE! - In the days of the dinosaurs when the Earth was spinning faster, the days/night cycles were shorter. Going back a couple of billion years further, at one time the Earth was spinning so fast that it may have had a ring around it, similar to Saturn. The Earth was much more oblate at that time, the oceans were more concentrated around the equatorial zones, with much more shallow ocean depths at the poles. The oceans are still deeper at the equator then they are at the poles and the Earth is still slightly oblate.
EVOLUTION OF ATMOSPHERE:
hydrogen and helium would have been abundant in earth´s primordial atmosphere. These elements were derived in part from the original gaseous material of the cosmic cloud, but volcanic outgassing during lithification of the crust probably continued as well. Neon and argon and some of the lighter gases such as xenon probably also existed in the early atmosphere.
The first atmosphere of the earth, then, contained hydrogen, helium, neon, argon and various other lighter and inert gases, none of which is abundant in the present atmosphere. Most of these on liberation to the air now either escape earth´s gravitational pull because of their low densities or are bound up in minerals by chemically reacting with them. It is likely that the primitive atmosphere did not linger long but was dissipated through these processes.
A little reflection tells us that earth´s present atmosphere necessarily evolved from one that was different. We know no primary source for the free molecular oxygen that comprises one –fifth of our present atmosphere. Compared with solar abundances, our atmosphere has only traces of hydrogen and helium but a disproportionate amount of nitrogen.
An important clue to the origin of our ancestral atmosphere is found in the abundances of so-called noble gases – elements that, unlike oxygen, do not (or rarely) combine with others because they have the stable configuration of 8 (or 2 in the case of helium) in their outermost shell of electrons. As they do not ordinarily lose, gain, or share electrons with other elements, variations in their abundance imply different sources. Had earth inherited its atmosphere directly from the solar nebula, the gaseous elements neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon should be present in approximately solar abundances, allowing for the addition of radiogenic isotopes. That is not the case. It has been repeatedly noted over the past half-century that all the noble gases are grossly depleted in the earth´s atmosphere compared with solar and cosmic abundances. They are depleted, in fact, by several to many orders of magnitude. This means either that earth accumulated without an atmosphere of nebular proportions or that any initial atmosphere escaped its gravity field in some subsequent episode of heating that accelerated even the heavy noble gases to escape velocities.
The most significant development following sufficient cooling and consolidation of the surface rocks was liberation of abundant water along with CO2 , N2, and H2 S by volcanic outgassing. Water vapor is dissociated in the upper atmosphere by ultraviolet light to yield oxygen and hydrogen. This process constituted the sole source of free oxygen of the early atmosphere, and the build up to significant oxygen concentrations occupied the long interval between at least 3400 and about 2000 m.y. ago. Further, oxygen of the early high atmosphere was photochemically converted to ozone as at present, and with time, ozone concentration led to the development of a screen to ultraviolet light. Lastly, accumulation of water molecules in the atmosphere caused extensive precipitation and hence the initiation of the oceans at some time prior to 3760 m.y. ago, when the oldest known sedimentary rocks were deposited. Other concept regarding evolution of early oxygen in atmosphere:
If earth´s primitive atmosphere resulted from volcanic outgassing, we have a problem, because volcanoes do not emit free oxygen. Where did the very significant percentage of oxygen in our present atmosphere (20 percent) come from?
The major source of oxygen is green plants. Plants did not just adapt to their environment, they actually influenced it, dramatically altering the composition of the entire planet´s atmosphere by using carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. This is a good example of how earth operates as a giant system in which living things interact with their environment.
How did plants come to alter the atmosphere? The key is the way in which plants create their own food. They employ photosynthesis, in which they use light energy to synthesize food sugars from carbon dioxide and water. The process releases a waste gas, oxygen. Those of us in the animal kingdom rely on oxygen to metabolize our food, and we in turn exhale carbon dioxide as a waste gas. The plant use this carbon dioxide for more photosynthesis, and so on, in a continuing system.
The first life-forms on earth, probably bacteria, did not need oxygen. Their life processes were geared to the earlier, oxygen less atmosphere. Even today, many anaerobic thrive in environments that lack free oxygen. Later, primitive plants evolved that used photosynthesis and released oxygen. Slowly, the oxygen content of earth´s atmosphere increased. The Precambrian rock record suggests that much of the first free oxygen did not remain free because it combined with (oxidized) other substances dissolved in water, especially iron. Iron has tremendous affinity for oxygen, and the two elements combine to form iron oxides (rust) at any opportunity. To this day, the majority of oxygen produced over time is locked up in the ancient "banded rock" and "red bed" formations.
Then, once the available iron satisfied its need for oxygen, substantial quantities of oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere. By the beginning of the Paleozoic era, about 4 billion years into earth´s existence, the fossil record reveals abundant ocean- dwelling organisms that require oxygen to live.
Once oxygen had been produced, ultraviolet light split the molecules, producing the ozone UV shield as a by-product. Only at this point did life move out of the oceans and respiration evolved.
Hence, the composition of earth´s atmosphere has evolved together with its life-forms, from an oxygen less envelop to today´s oxygen-rich environment.
The fusion reaction explosion sent its matter hurtling at great speed outward in every direction in all sizes and speeds, both gases and molten solids, from the size of small particles to the size of the giant planets. Some of it was hurled out at such a great velocity that it was lost forever to other regions of the galaxy.
• THE BIRTH OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM - About four and one half billion years ago our protosun was slowly collapsing under the force of its gravity. As it did this, due to the immense compression caused by gravity it became extremely hot. Millions of degrees centigrade. The more compact it got, the hotter it got. It was not alone in the sky, it was part of a community of stars and protostars that lay in the outer regions of our galaxy, the Milky Way. The proto-sun was being swept around the galaxy, along with its neighbors, at the tremendous speed of over 500,000 miles per hour - relative to the center of the galaxy.
So far it had no satellites, (planets, moons, etc.) it’s gravity had sucked in most of the star dust from its vicinity for hundreds of millions of miles in every direction. It was getting close to the temperature and pressure required for a nuclear fusion reaction to occur. The protosun was like a giant nuclear hydrogen bomb waiting to be detonated.
• THE BIG BLAST - When this tremendous event finally did occur, the nuclear fusion reactions started up in the hottest most dense area of the Sun. Tremendous amounts of radiant nuclear energy were suddenly created in the innards of the Sun. All of this newly released energy caused a sudden sustained violent increase in the pressure and temperature of the Sun creating tremendous chain reactions throughout its core region.
These reactions did not just cause the star to began shining. It caused the Sun to violently expand to many times its former size and explode. The explosion sent its matter hurtling at great speed outward in every direction in all sizes and speeds, both gases and molten solids, from the size of small particles to the size of the giant planets. Some of it was hurled out at such a great velocity that it was lost forever to other regions of the galaxy.
• THE BIRTH OF THE PLANETS AND OTHER SOLAR DEBRIS - Much of the debris eventually fell back, into the speeding Sun, if its trajectory was just right. Other debris, after it had expended its outward energy and had not broken free of the Sun's gravity, began to fall back toward the Sun.
It fell back toward the Sun, but due to the Sun's great galactic speed and changing position always missed the Sun. This is the matter that became the planets, moons, comets, asteroids of our solar system. They are the survivors.
It is like a skeet shooter who always aims directly at the clay pigeon, not allowing for a lead. His shot will never strike the pigeon simply because it will always have moved by the time the shot gets there. This is the basis on how our solar system works. It was a time of tremendous chaos in the solar vicinity, with all the matter rushing back toward the Sun from every direction crashing into each other and falling back into the Sun.
• THE PULSATING SUN - After the initial explosion, the rapidly expanding sun began to cool. As it cooled the area that a fusion reaction could take place became smaller and smaller. Some of the fusion reaction began to shut down. The expansion eventually came to a halt as the fusion energy was no longer powerful enough to sustain the expanding outward momentum. Finally the expansion stopped altogether and then the Sun began to contract.
This at first stabilized the fusion reaction and then as the gravitational contraction of the Sun continued, the area of the reaction again began to increase. When the Sun had contracted to the point where the area of reaction was again very large, the Sun again expanded and exploded outward with tremendous force sending more matter hurling out into space.
• THE STABLE STAR?? - This time however the expansion and explosion was not as powerful as the first event. This sequence of events happened again and again, each time the explosion was weaker and the expansion and contraction not as great as the previous event. This pulsation of the Sun gradually diminished, after millions of Earth years, until it finally stabilized and became a mature star. This expansion and contraction rhythm may continue today at a very attenuated pace, perhaps causing our regularly reoccurring ice ages.
Scientists have determined that the glaciers of our last ice age began receding at both poles simultaneously indicating; a period of diminished solar radiation could have caused these ice ages. This periodic expansion and contraction is simply the balancing act of the Sun's gravitational and nuclear fusion forces.
• THE SOLAR SYSTEM EMERGES OUT OF THE CHAOS - Eventually out of all this chaos and turmoil our orderly solar system began to emerge. The Sun had slowly settled down from its tremendous expansions and contractions of earlier times. Most of its matter had fallen back into the Sun, some had been lost and a small percentage had begun oscillating back and forth across the Sun’s path.
The sun began to emit a constant amount of radiant energy that did not fluctuate too much. (This made the existence of life on Earth possible). Its solar flares became less energetic. At that time they still occasionally spit out globs of molten matter and gases into space, some of which also became comets and other solar bodies. These prominences still occur today but now they do not have enough velocity to overcome the gravity of the mature Sun.
The matter, hurling out in these present prominences does not have enough energy to escape from the vicinity of the Sun, into space and so, it falls back into the Sun. The solar flares that we observe today are very tame in comparison with the tremendously powerful solar prominences that occurred in the past ages when significant amounts of matter were hurled free of the Sun's vicinity, into possible orbit.
• THE REASON FOR BODE'S LAW - The debris of the early convulsions of the Sun (our solar bodies, the planets, moons, comets, asteroids etc.) are all constantly falling directly toward the Sun. Due to its tremendous galactic velocity, the Sun's position is constantly changing, so they seldom strike it. Millions of collisions have however, occurred between all the debris over the ages.
The potmarks on the Moon, Mars and our Earth, etc. are evidence of the enormous number of these collisions. The bodies that collided with other bodies either fell back into the Sun or they were absorbed by the larger bodies of the solar system. The asteroid belt is probably made up of debris from a collision of two fairly large solar bodies whose paths crossed.
Over a period of millions of years, the solar bodies settled into their present orbits. The planets, moons etc. that are a present part of our solar system are the survivors of the millions of collisions that took place when the solar system was younger. They are now well spaced from each other and since they maintain their respective distances from the Sun are in little danger of colliding with each other. They are the survivors. This is the reason for Bode's Law. Comets are the exception to this rule.
• THE SURVIORS BEGAN TO LINE UP IN THE SUN/JUPITER PLANE. - The smaller planets and moons that survived all the collisions began to line up in the same plane as the larger planets. The planets, except for Pluto lined up in the approximate plane of Jupiter and the Sun. Pluto will probably line up eventually. The orbits' of the comets are tilted and are very elongated. They are in danger of someday colliding with another body in the solar system. They are probably much younger then the other solar bodies. They may have been born from later solar prominences or may be stray bodies that came from outside our system.
• COMETS ARE THE MAVERICKS - Halley's Comet travels in an orbit that is apparently opposite to the orbital direction of the other planets and has a long elliptical path that crosses the other planet's planes. It is in danger of possibly eventually colliding with one of the planets. Its plane intersects with the other planets' plane, between Mars and Earth's orbit.
Even though the comet appears to be orbiting in a direction opposite to that of the planets, it actually approaches the Sun from the rear of its galactic path as do all the other permanent bodies in the solar system. They are all (planets, moons, asteroids, and comets) traveling in the same galactic direction and at nearly the same average speed as the Sun. Halley's comet is actually traveling in the same direction as the rest of the planets. Its perihelion is on the opposite side of the Sun however, giving the illusion that its apparent orbital direction is retrograding relative to the planets.
• THE EARTH'S ROTATION IS SLOWING! - Our Earth was spinning very fast when it was spit out of the Sun as a molten glob four and one half billion years ago in the initial explosion. (Venus was spinning in an opposite direction when it was spit out and is still doing the same). The Earth settled down in a very fortunate orbit for the existence of life. At 93 million miles distance from the Sun it receives just about the right amount of radiant energy.
Its spinning has gradually slowed down over these billion of years and is now settled into a comfortable 24 hour rotation at the present time. It will be millions of years in the future before it slows to a complete halt as our less massive moon has already. - The Earth's Slowing Rotation.
• THE EARTH'S CHANGING SHAPE! - In the days of the dinosaurs when the Earth was spinning faster, the days/night cycles were shorter. Going back a couple of billion years further, at one time the Earth was spinning so fast that it may have had a ring around it, similar to Saturn. The Earth was much more oblate at that time, the oceans were more concentrated around the equatorial zones, with much more shallow ocean depths at the poles. The oceans are still deeper at the equator then they are at the poles and the Earth is still slightly oblate.
EVOLUTION OF ATMOSPHERE:
hydrogen and helium would have been abundant in earth´s primordial atmosphere. These elements were derived in part from the original gaseous material of the cosmic cloud, but volcanic outgassing during lithification of the crust probably continued as well. Neon and argon and some of the lighter gases such as xenon probably also existed in the early atmosphere.
The first atmosphere of the earth, then, contained hydrogen, helium, neon, argon and various other lighter and inert gases, none of which is abundant in the present atmosphere. Most of these on liberation to the air now either escape earth´s gravitational pull because of their low densities or are bound up in minerals by chemically reacting with them. It is likely that the primitive atmosphere did not linger long but was dissipated through these processes.
A little reflection tells us that earth´s present atmosphere necessarily evolved from one that was different. We know no primary source for the free molecular oxygen that comprises one –fifth of our present atmosphere. Compared with solar abundances, our atmosphere has only traces of hydrogen and helium but a disproportionate amount of nitrogen.
An important clue to the origin of our ancestral atmosphere is found in the abundances of so-called noble gases – elements that, unlike oxygen, do not (or rarely) combine with others because they have the stable configuration of 8 (or 2 in the case of helium) in their outermost shell of electrons. As they do not ordinarily lose, gain, or share electrons with other elements, variations in their abundance imply different sources. Had earth inherited its atmosphere directly from the solar nebula, the gaseous elements neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon should be present in approximately solar abundances, allowing for the addition of radiogenic isotopes. That is not the case. It has been repeatedly noted over the past half-century that all the noble gases are grossly depleted in the earth´s atmosphere compared with solar and cosmic abundances. They are depleted, in fact, by several to many orders of magnitude. This means either that earth accumulated without an atmosphere of nebular proportions or that any initial atmosphere escaped its gravity field in some subsequent episode of heating that accelerated even the heavy noble gases to escape velocities.
The most significant development following sufficient cooling and consolidation of the surface rocks was liberation of abundant water along with CO2 , N2, and H2 S by volcanic outgassing. Water vapor is dissociated in the upper atmosphere by ultraviolet light to yield oxygen and hydrogen. This process constituted the sole source of free oxygen of the early atmosphere, and the build up to significant oxygen concentrations occupied the long interval between at least 3400 and about 2000 m.y. ago. Further, oxygen of the early high atmosphere was photochemically converted to ozone as at present, and with time, ozone concentration led to the development of a screen to ultraviolet light. Lastly, accumulation of water molecules in the atmosphere caused extensive precipitation and hence the initiation of the oceans at some time prior to 3760 m.y. ago, when the oldest known sedimentary rocks were deposited. Other concept regarding evolution of early oxygen in atmosphere:
If earth´s primitive atmosphere resulted from volcanic outgassing, we have a problem, because volcanoes do not emit free oxygen. Where did the very significant percentage of oxygen in our present atmosphere (20 percent) come from?
The major source of oxygen is green plants. Plants did not just adapt to their environment, they actually influenced it, dramatically altering the composition of the entire planet´s atmosphere by using carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. This is a good example of how earth operates as a giant system in which living things interact with their environment.
How did plants come to alter the atmosphere? The key is the way in which plants create their own food. They employ photosynthesis, in which they use light energy to synthesize food sugars from carbon dioxide and water. The process releases a waste gas, oxygen. Those of us in the animal kingdom rely on oxygen to metabolize our food, and we in turn exhale carbon dioxide as a waste gas. The plant use this carbon dioxide for more photosynthesis, and so on, in a continuing system.
The first life-forms on earth, probably bacteria, did not need oxygen. Their life processes were geared to the earlier, oxygen less atmosphere. Even today, many anaerobic thrive in environments that lack free oxygen. Later, primitive plants evolved that used photosynthesis and released oxygen. Slowly, the oxygen content of earth´s atmosphere increased. The Precambrian rock record suggests that much of the first free oxygen did not remain free because it combined with (oxidized) other substances dissolved in water, especially iron. Iron has tremendous affinity for oxygen, and the two elements combine to form iron oxides (rust) at any opportunity. To this day, the majority of oxygen produced over time is locked up in the ancient "banded rock" and "red bed" formations.
Then, once the available iron satisfied its need for oxygen, substantial quantities of oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere. By the beginning of the Paleozoic era, about 4 billion years into earth´s existence, the fossil record reveals abundant ocean- dwelling organisms that require oxygen to live.
Once oxygen had been produced, ultraviolet light split the molecules, producing the ozone UV shield as a by-product. Only at this point did life move out of the oceans and respiration evolved.
Hence, the composition of earth´s atmosphere has evolved together with its life-forms, from an oxygen less envelop to today´s oxygen-rich environment.
Monday, April 27, 2009
Saturday, April 25, 2009
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